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A Study of the Variations between 
the Original and the Standard 
Editions of Balzac’s Les Chouans 


THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 





THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 
NEW YORK 


THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
LONDON 


THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI 


THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY 
SHANGHAI 


A Study of the Variations between 
the Original and the Standard 
Editions of Balzac’s Les Chouans 


By 
HELEN ELCESSOR BARNES 





THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 


I 


CoPYRIGHT 1923 By 
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 


All Rights Reserved 


Published January 1923 


Composed and Printed By 
The University of Chicago Press 
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 


IOC 





PREFACE 


In the Lovenjoul Collection at Chantilly, carefully stored 
away among fifty other such treasures, lies the original 
manuscript of Le Dernier Chouan (written 1828). Near at 
hand, behind the curator’s desk, stands that monument of 
recent critical scholarship, the Conard edition of Balzac. In 
this edition, Les Chouans (1920) has a fresh, newly minted 
appearance; but the manuscript too, for all the ninety years 
that roll between, has a certain freshness and buoyancy— 
the first-written of the Comédie humaine, the first novel 
acknowledged and signed by Balzac himself! The bold, cursive 
handwriting, the comparative freedom from corrections and 
erasures, the eager forward leap of the pen, betoken the first 
serious manifestation of that energy which is still shaking the 
Republic of Letters. 

During those ninety-odd years, the form of the Comédie 
humaine, like the reputation of its author, has experienced 
vicissitudes, and has shown on the whole a decided tendency 


toward increase in size. From manuscript to first or even 
fifteenth proof, from placard to book-form, from single edition 


to the collected Comédie humaine (1842-48), many a novel has 
undergone far-reaching and multiform changes, significant 
revelations of Balzac’s literary principles and processes. The 
writer of this Preface has assumed the task of analyzing 
Balzac’s method and of examining, within limits, these 
changes, particularly as recorded on the proofs of certain 


_ novels preserved at Chantilly. But the differences between 


4) 


various editions also need to be analyzed. It is in this 


‘Sedirection that the study by Miss Barnes offers a distinct con- 
.) tribution. Not only does the princeps of Les Chouans consti- 


Vv 


5202414 


vi PREFACE 


tute a rare and curious subject for investigation, not only 
should Balzac’s first novel have the primacy in a broad study 
of variations, but also the differences between this earliest 
form and the editions of 1834 and later are as salient as they 
are valuable for anyone interested in the art of fiction. On 
these several accounts, this volume, which represents much 
careful and devoted labor, is printed in the hope that it may 
reach all Balzacians. 
E. PRESTON DARGAN 


UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
October, 1922 


L 


II. 


III. 


CONTENTS 


PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 


Editions of Les Chouans . 
Title . 

Form . A , : 
Date of Composition 
Title-Page 

Dedication 

Introduction 


ALL THE VARIATIONS UP TO THE First ATTACK 


Balzac’s Method 

Influence of Cooper 

Definition of the First Attack. 

Table of Variations up to the First Meee 

Additions and Omissions in the Michel Lévy Didier Pheisen 
Additions and Omissions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words 
Substitutions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Phrases . 
Substitutions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words 

Changes in Position in the Michel Lévy Edition—Phrases 
Changes in Position in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words . 
Variations in Spelling 

Variations in Punctuation 

Typical Pages . 


SALIENT VARIATIONS AFTER THE First ATTACK 


Animalisms 

Vegetablisms 

Reappearing Charattems! 

Minor Variations in Names . 

Money Variations . 

Plot of the Story 

Variations Involving Charieieriea Non 


vii 


PAGE 


INI AF WwW DN H 


If 


a iat he 
I2 
1 ip? 
14 
14 
20 
23 
27 
30 
30 
31 
32 
32 


36 
36 
39 
39 
43 
44 


45 
46 


viii CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Variations Involving Romantic Elements. . . . . 57 
Miscellaneous Variations! Uy 0) Sho. i) Se | 
Variations Facilitating Motivation . : 4 ; ae 
Variations Involving the Conclusion of the Stony 2 ge les 
Conclusion 4 CTR MOTORS VAR AVS beni ke 0 tN any re crc 


BIBLIOGRAPHY Va.) cue in ei eee el eth MES Se 


I 
PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 


Among the writings of Balzac Les Chouans occupies a 
unique position in that it is the first story to which Balzac 
signed his name, the first of the Comédie humaine to be pub- 
lished, and a monument which marks the transition from the 
historical to the realistic novel. Furthermore, the book shows 
the influence of other writers and embodies, in particular, 
traits decidedly Cooperesque. Since its maiden appearance 
the work has undergone considerable modification, and it is 
the purpose here to compare and to analyze the variations 
between the original and the standard editions with the object 
of securing specific information relative to Balzac’s method 
of composition, his style, and his realism. The plan of 
procedure will be to take into consideration (1) changes in 
prefatory matter and the more or less mechanical differences, 
(2) all the variations up to the first attack (the beginning of 
the action),' and (3) the salient variations existing after 
the first attack. 

A word now concerning the editions of Les Chouans. 
By the “standard edition” is meant the edition published by 
Michel Lévy Brothers in 1870,? containing Balzac’s final 
corrections of the story, as made in 1846.3 Prior to this had 
appeared the original edition in 1829, published by Urbain 
Canel, the second edition in 1834, published by Vimont, and 
the third edition in 1836, published by Werdet.4 As our title 

* This term will be explained later on p. 12. 

2 (Euvres completes de H. de Balzac (Michel Lévy ed.), XII, 1-310. 

3 See Correspondance de Honoré de Balzac, pp. 418, 425. 

4 Maurice Serval, Autour d’un Roman de Balzac: Les Chouans, pp. 50-54. 


I 


2 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


implies, we are primarily concerned with the variations 
between the first and the Lévy editions. It should be said, 
however, that the great majority of the changes made were 
for the second edition in 1834.7 

In taking up, first, the mechanical aspects of the two 
editions under consideration, we note at the outset variations 
in title, form, and date of composition. The original edition 
bears the title Le Dernier Chouan ou la Bretagne en 1800; 
the standard or Michel Lévy edition? is called Les Chouans 
ou la Bretagne en 1799. ‘The change of date in the title 
from 1800 to 1799 was evidently made in order to render the 
time specified historically correct. The reason for the change 
of Le Dernier Chouan to Les Chouans is more difficult to ex- 
plain and is of special interest in view of the fact that the story 
has much in common with Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans 
or Le Dernier des Mohicans: Histoire de mil sept cent cinquante- 
sept’ It is probable that, in accordance with Balzac’s 
growing sociological intention, the collective title Les Chouans 
seemed the more comprehensive and the more suitable. 

As to the mechanical form of the original and the standard 
editions of Les Chouans, the original edition is in some respects 

* The edition of 1836 is like that of 1834; “‘c’est plutét un tirage nouveau 
de la précédente qu’une édition nouvelle; car non seulement le texte, mais méme 
la composition est identique; elle a été publiée par Werdet. I] n’en existe, a 
notre connaissance, un exemplaire qu’a la bibliothéque de Chantilly, et par une 
annotation, M. de Lovenjoul la qualifie d’édition inconnue. Le changement 
d’éditeur s’explique trés bien, car, en 1836, Balzac avait passé un traité avec 
Werdet, pour la publication de toutes ses ceuvres.”—Serval, op. cit., p. 54. 

2 Also the Conard edition. The volume of Les Chouans in the Conard 
edition became available only after the present study of variations was under- 


taken, but we are indebted to MM. Bouteron and Longnon for various careful 
annotations. 

3 See Introduction, Vol. I, of the original edition of Les Chouans, pp. x-xi; 
also the beginning of the story in either edition. 


4 The title of Defauconpret’s translation of the Mohicans, the version with 
which Balzac in all probability was very familiar. 


PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 3 


the superior—a statement which also applies to a number of 
the works comprising the Comédie humaine. In many in- 
stances the first editions of Balzac’s novels are divided into 
chapters, with or without headings. In the Comédie, however, 
they frequently appear as solid books or are divided into a 
few long chapters or parts. For example, in the editio princeps 
of Les Chouans, published in four volumes, the story is divided 
into thirty-two unnamed chapters; in the standard edition 
published in one volume, the story is given in three chapters 
or parts, each bearing a heading. Moreover, the three parts 
referred to in the latter case vary considerably in length, 
“the first containing nearly a fifth, the second nearly two-fifths, 
and the third not much less than a half of the whole work.’” 
The advantage thus gained by the presence of chapter-headings 
in the standard edition is overshadowed by the reduction in 
the number of chapters, and the present division of Les 
Chouans adds weight to the criticism often made that the story 
is heavy. As Saintsbury says: 

Now, everybody who has attended to the matter must see that this 
absence of chapters is a great addition of heaviness in the case where a 
book is exposed to the charge of being heavy. The named chapters of 
Dumas supply something like an argument of the whole book; and even 
the unnamed ones of Scott lighten, punctuate, and relieve the course of 
the story. It may well be that Balzac’s sense that ‘‘the story”? with him 
was not the first, or anything like the first consideration, had something 
to do with his innovation. But I do not think it improved his books at 
any time, and in the more romantic class of them it is a distinct dis- 
advantage.? 


To the preceding remarks we may add that Balzac’s 
publishers were often responsible for removing chapter- 
titles in order to save space. 


t George Saintsbury, Preface to The Chouans, translated by Ellen Marriage, 
p. xii. Philadelphia: Avil Publishing Company, rgo1. 
2 Ibid., p. xii. 


4 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


Concerning the date of composition of Les Chouans there 
is considerable difference of opinion. In the Introduction 
found in Volume I of the original edition Balzac says: 
“ Aujourd’hut, en 1829, un journal annoncait qu’un régiment 
francais, composé de Bretons, était débarqué 4 Nantes, ...’’? 
From this statement we might infer, on first thought, that 
Les Chouans was written in 1829. According to the Michel 
Lévy or standard edition, however, the time of composition is 
August, 1827, at Fougéres. To determine the correct date 
of composition authorities have centered their attention on 
the actual manuscript of Les Chouans and Balzac’s corre- 
spondence. The manuscript was first dated by Balzac “Janvier 
1828,” later, “Fougéres, aoit 1827.”” Inaletter (No. XXIII) 
to his sister, Madame Laure Surville, dated Paris, 1827, 
Balzac says: ‘“‘J’ai encore une quinzaine de jours a passer sur 
les Chouans. ...”’3 This statement, together with the change 
in date of the manuscript, has caused some? to believe that 
Les Chouans was written in the year 1827. As a matter of 
fact, the story in all probability was largely composed in the 
autumn of the year 1828. J. Haas, who may be taken as a 
reliable authority in the matter, substantiates this claim 
thus: 

Ich méchte aber zunichst noch zeigen, dass Balzac selbst die Abfas- 
sungszeit der Chouans in die Zeit von 1827 und das Erscheinen in das 
Jahr 1828 verlegen wollte. Das Manuskript, das der Ausgabe der 
Chouans in der Comédie Humaine zu Grunde liegt (1844), ist erst 
datiert worden “Janvier 1828,” dieses Datum wurde durchstrichen und 
ersetzt durch Fougéres, August, 1827.5 

t Pp. xix—xx. 

2j. Haas, “Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” ZfFSL, XXX, 158. 

3 Correspondance, p. 53. 


4For instance, L. Séché, ‘Balzac 4 Fougéres,” Revue Bleue, II (1901), 
357-62. 
5 J. Haas, ‘Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” Zf/FSL, XXX, 158-59. 


PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 5 


But in 1827 Balzac was not in Fougéres! Haas continues 
to the effect that it was evidently the author’s intention to 
assign an earlier date both to the actual writing and to the 
publication of Le Dernier Chouan (‘Je publiais les Chouans 
en 1828’’). Since the last statement is known to be incorrect, 
it follows that we can hardly trust the date on the manuscript. 
(It will be remembered that Lamartine and other writers of the 
epoch had the habit of loosely dating their manuscripts.) 
Why should Balzac lead us into this error? Probably, thinks 
Haas, because he wishes to overlay the memory of his bank- 
ruptcy of that period and to represent that he was engaged 
in literary as well as printing activities as early as 1827. 

However that may be, we seem justified in disregarding the 
date on the manuscript—which had already been once altered. 
There remains Balzac’s letter to his sister, vaguely dated, 
“Paris, 1827.’ Now in this letter Balzac alludes to his 
quarters in the Rue Cassini which he did not occupy (and this 
is well substantiated) until after April, 1828. Furthermore, 
as regards this letter, Spoelberch de Lovenjoul wrote to 
Haas: 


La lettre soi-disant de 1827 est du samedi, 14 février [1829] et se 
rapporte uniquement & la correction des épreuves du Dernier Chouan, 
qui parut en effet en mars suivant. 


So the fortnight which Balzac needed to ‘“‘passer sur les 
Chouans” would refer to his customary and numerous proof- 
corrections—a very plausible supposition. 

Having demolished, Haas proceeds to reconstruct. In a 
letter dated September 1, 1828, Balzac wrote to General 
Pommereul, his future host at Fougéres: 

Depuis un mois je travaille 4 des ouvrages historiques du plus haut 


intérét et j’espére qu’a défaut d’un talent tout 4 fait problématique 
chez moi, les mceurs nationales me porteront peut-étre bonheur. 


t The italics are ours. The letter is quoted by Hanotaux-Vicaire, p. 115. 


6 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


The reference here is unmistakable. Rejecting those 
things which lay behind—the Ciuvres de jeunesse and his 
bankruptcy—Balzac was pressing forward to the mark of 
socio-historical fiction. This interpretation is borne out by 
the fact that Balzac’s visit to Fougéres really took place in 
the early autumn of 1828. The passage shows, as Haas 
concludes: 


. . . . dass Balzac die Chouans in der zweiten Hialfte des Jahres 1828, 
jedenfalls nach dem industriellen Zusammenbruch, geschrieben hat. 
Dass er die historischen und lokalen Studien in so kurzer Zeit zu Ende 
fiihrte, ist ein Beweis seiner grossartigen Leistungsfahigkeit und Spann- 
kraft, die sich durch Ungliick nicht beugen liess. 


Granted, then, that Haas is correct in his opinion that 
Les Chouans was, for the most part, composed in the latter 
part of the year 1828, one more remark should be made in 
passing, namely, that Balzac was a great admirer of Cooper 
and knew the American author before 1828. 

The next variation to be mentioned here has reference to 
the title-pages of the two editions under discussion. In the 
original edition, upon the title-page of each of the four volumes, 
the following lines appear from the A pocrypha: 


Elle était parfaitement belle. 

Elle lui dit: Qui suis-je pour résister aux désirs de mon Seigneur ? 
Faire votre volonté sera un sujet de joie jusqu’A ma mort. 

Elle frappa fortement deux fois son cou et lui sépara la téte du 
corps.—Judith, ch. 8-12-13. 


The character of Judith is in many respects much like 
that of Mademoiselle de Verneuil (the heroine of Les Chouans) 
and the biblical verses quoted, although they seem appropriate 
enough to warrant their citation, are not strictly in keeping 
with the plot of the story; it may be for this reason that 
Balzac dispenses with them entirely in the standard edition. 


PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 7 


The last two variations to be considered in this chapter 
concern the dedication of the book and the Introduction. 
The original edition of the story was never dedicated. The 
Michel Lévy or standard edition, however, bears the following, 


A Monsteur THEODORE DaBLiIn, NEGOCIANT 


Au premier ami, le premier ouvrage. 
DeE Batzac. 


In a letter addressed to this old friend at Paris, January, 1845, 
Balzac speaks of the matter of the dedication in detail. He 
Says: 

Mon cher Dablin, voici le manuscrit corrigé et les épreuves des 
Chouans. Dés que j’ai mis un nom ami en téte de chacune de mes 
compositions, celle-ci vous était destinée; mais les hasards qui dominent 
les livres ont fait que, depuis 1834, Jes Chouans n’ont pas été réimprimés, 
quoique plusieurs personnes aient trouvé ce livre meilleur que sa réputa- 
tion. 

Si j’étais de ceux qui marquent dans leur temps, ceci pourrait avoir 
une grande valeur un jour; mais ni vous ni moi ne saurons le mot de 
cette énigme; aussi n’y voyez qu’un témoignage de cette amitié qui 
m’est restée au coeur, quoique vous l’ayez peu cultivée depuis bien des 
années.* 


Judging from this letter of Balzac, it would seem that he 
himself recognized the probable importance of Les Chouans 
as a turning-point in nineteenth-century French fiction. 

As to the Introduction, this already has been mentioned 
as appearing in Volume [I of the original edition.2 The stand- 
ard edition is published without a Preface, possibly on the 
ground that the story is sufficiently self-explanatory to render 

* Correspondance, No. CCLXXVI, p. 418. 


2The same preface, slightly shortened, preceded the editions of 1834 
and 1836. With the edition of 1846 came a new preface (called the second 
preface by some authorities and the third by others), which was suppressed in 
the definitive edition. Still another preface exists in the Lovenjoul Collection, 
a manuscript of thirteen pages in the handwriting of Balzac, supposedly written 
in 1828 or 1829, and apparently composed with the intention of presenting to 


8 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


a preamble unessential. For the student of Balzac, however, 
the Introduction is important. In the first place, it gives 
some conception of the spirit in which Balzac wrote the book 
and offered it to the public. Thus Balzac says: 


En prenant le sujet de son ouvrage dans la partie la plus grave et 
aujourd’hui la plus délicate de histoire contemporaine, l’auteur s’est 
trouvé dans la nécessité de déclarer ici, avec une sorte de solennité, © 
qu’il n’a jamais eu l’intention de livrer au ridicule ou au mépris les 
opinions et les personnes. Il respecte les convictions; et, pour la plu- 
part, les personnes lui sont inconnues. Ce ne sera pas sa faute si les 
choses parlent d’elles-mémes et parlent si haut. Il ne les a ni créées nt 
révélées. Il n’a rien demandé 4 son imagination de tout ce qu’il a traduit 
sur cette espéce de scéne, la seule ot un auteur puisse trouver la liberté 
de la pensée pour exposer un drame dans toute sa vérité. Ici le pays est 
le pays, les hommes sont les hommes, les paroles sont les paroles mémes; et 
les faits n’ont été reniés ni par les Mémoires publiés aux diverses époques 
de la Restauration ni par la République francaise. L’Empire seul les a 
ensevelis dans les ténébres de la censure; et dire que cet ouvrage n’etit 
pas vu le jour sous le régne de Napoléon, c’est honorer l’opinion publique 
qui nous a conquis la liberté.t 


The passages that we have italicized in the preceding 
excerpt are of special interest in view of the fact that they 
plainly indicate Balzac’s truth-seeking and realistic intention. 
How well he carries out this purpose, we shall see as we take 
up the variations dealing with the story proper. 

Balzac’s next statements in the Introduction go further 
into this matter of the vérité of Les Chouans. He says: 

1. Concerning the general presentation of the facts: 


La présence de quelques intéressés lui [i.e., the author] a prescrit 
d’en accuser la physionomie avec une rigoureuse exactitude et de n’avoir 
que la passion permise au peintre: celle de bien présenter un portrait, 


the public not only Les Chouans but an ensemble of the author’s future works. 
At this period Balzac’s plan appears to have been limited to the roman historique. 
See Serval, op. cit., pp. 56-59; also, Histoire des Giuvres de H. de Balzac by Spoel- 
berch de Lovenjoul, pp. 145-46. 


t Introduction, pp. v-vii. 


PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 9 


de distribuer naturellement la lumiére et de tAcher de faire croire a la 
vie des personnages. Mais ce mot d’exactitude veut une explication. 
LDauteur n’a pas entendu ainsi contracter Vobligation de donner les faits 
un @ un, sechement et de maniére @ montrer jusqu’d quel point on peut 
faire arriver l’histoire a la condition d’un squelette dont les os sont soigneuse- 
ment numérotés ... auteur a tenté de mettre dans ce livre l’esprit dune 
époque et dun fait, préférant la discussion au procés-verbal, la bataille 
au bulletin, le drame au récit. ... 

Cependant, par respect pour beaucoup de gens dont il est inutile 
d’indiquer les hautes positions sociales et qui ont miraculeusement 
reparu sur la scéne politique, /’auieur a eu soin d’atténuer lV horreur dune 
multitude de faits. Il a singuliérement négligé de montrer la part que le 
clergé a eue dans ces entreprises désastreuses et inutiles. Cette timidité 
et ce respect sont nés A la lecture des procédures de quelques tribunaux 
révolutionnaires de l’Ouest, dont les débats, tout succincts et sommaires 
qu’ils soient, fourmillent de preuves légales qu’il eit été odieux de faire 
sortir de l’enceinte des greffes; quoique pour plusieurs familles, certains 
jugemens soient devenus des témoignages de dévouement et des titres 
de gloire.* 


2. Concerning the ‘‘caractére’’ of the Dernier Chouan: 


Le caractére donné au Dernier Chouan est tout a la fois un hommage 
et un voeu ... Si certaines personnes minutieuses veulent rechercher 
quelle est cette noble victime tombée dans |’Ouest sous les balles répu- 
blicaines, elles auront a choisir entre plusieurs gentilshommes qui succom- 
bérent en dirigeant les insurrections de 1799. Mais quoique les qualités 
privées d’un jeune seigneur et les renseignemens donnés 4 |’auteur sur 
quelques chefs par un vieillard bien instruit des événemens, aient servi 
& perfectionner le caractére du Dernier Chouan, il se croit obligé d’avouer 
ici que le véritable chef ne ressemble pas tout-d-fait au héros de ce livre.? 


3. Concerning ‘‘la fable”’ of the book: 


Quant 4 la fable du livre, il [the author] ne la donne pas comme 
bien neuve, l’épigraphe en fait foi, mais elle est déplorablement vraie; a 


t Introduction, pp. vii-x. 


2 Tbid., pp. x-xi. (According to M. du Pontavice de Heussey, there is a 
resemblance between the Dernier Chouan and a young officer by the name of 
Aimé-Casimir Picquet du Bois-Guy. The matter, however, is subject to 
debate. See Séché, op. cit., p. 360; Un Chouan: Le général du Boisguy, by 
Du Breil de Pontbriand; Serval, op. cit., pp. 16-25. 


IO VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


celle différence prés, que la réalité est odieuse, et que l événement qui emploie 
ict quatre a cing jours, s’est passé en quarante-huit heures. La précipita- 
tion de la véritable catastrophe n’aura peut-étre pas encore été assez 
adoucie; mais la nature s’est chargée d’excuser |’auteur.* 


4. Concerning names of characters and of places: 


Ignorant, au moment ou il écrivait, les destinées de quelques acteurs 
de son drame, il a déguisé certains noms. Cette précaution, dictée par 
la délicatesse, a été étendue aux localités. 

Le disirict de Fougéres ne lui sera pas assez hostile pour ro laccuser 
de lVavoir rendu le théAtre d’événemens qui se sont passés 4 quelques 
lieues de 1a. N’était-il pas tout naturel de choisir pour type de la 
Bretagne en 1800 [1799] un des berceaux de la chouannerie, et le site le © 
plus pittoresque peut-étre de ces belles contrées ?? 

Another point of interest in the Introduction is Balzac’s 
reference to his acknowledgment of the authorship of the 
story. “Les considérations politiques,” he claims, “... ont 
engagé l’auteur 4 mettre son nom a un ouvrage qu’une défiance 
bien légitime pour un premier livre lui etit conseillé de cacher. 
Sous le rapport littéraire, il a réfléchi qu'il y a peut-étre 
aujourd’hui de la modestie 4 signer un livre, lorsque tant de 
gens ont fait de anonyme une spéculation d’orgueil.’”3 

The remainder of the Introduction is devoted to matters 
which either are of little importance or are irrelevant at this 
point in our discussion, and so nothing more will be said here 
of the last pages of the Introduction other than that they are 
concerned largely with the entéiement of the Breton character, 
the poverty and benighted condition of Brittany, and Balzac’s 
intention to use throughout Les Chouans the dash (—) not 
only to indicate a change of interlocutor but to denote the 
hesitations, gestures, et cetera, which intersperse conversation. 
Let us pass now to a consideration of our second topic, namely, 
all the variations up to the first attack. 

* Introduction, pp. xii-xiii. 3 Ibid., p. xii. 

2 [bid., pp. xiii-xiv. ) 


IT 
ALL THE VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 


Before taking up our discussion of the variations in 
question, as well as the variations to be considered in the 
chapter following, two matters concerning the story in general 
need explanation. In the first place, it is to be noted that in 
Les Chouans we have the beginning of Balzac’s true method. 
What, we inquire, is the nature of the method characteristic of 
Balzac? Briefly, “‘the two mainsprings of his method are 
accumulation and harmony. In description, character, and 
plot the novelist accumulates his points along a given line; 
everywhere he harmonizes his data to accord with a definite 
keynote, a central unifying trait.”* Furthermore, it should 
be added that in the case of Balzac’s method the accumulation 
and harmony involve most, if not all, of the general qualities 
of realism.? 

tE. Preston Dargan, ‘Studies in Balzac. III. His General Method,” 
Modern Philology, XVII, No. 3 (July, 1919), 114. 

2 Namely, 


“Truth, or correspondence with objective reality 
Materialism: Animalism, money, externality 
Impersonality 
The scientific viewpoint 
The claim to universality 
The documentary method, or technical erudition 
Tediousness 
Representation of mediocrity and triviality 
Solidity 
Sympathy with ordinary life 
Sociological features.” 

See Dargan, “Studies in Balzac. II. Critical Analysis of Realism,” Modern 
Philology, XVI, No. 7 (November, 1918), 353. 


LL 


12 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


The second matter requiring explanation is the influence 
of Cooper on Les Chouans. As previously mentioned, Balzac 
was a great admirer of Cooper and in all probability knew him 
about the time of writing Les Chouans (1828)—Cooper was 
in Paris or in the vicinity of that city from July, 1826, to 
February, 1828, and from July, 1830, to some time in 1833. 
This fact, together with the popular enthusiasm aroused by 
Cooper in France from the time of the appearance of the first 
translation of The Spy (1822), no doubt did much to increase 
Balzac’s own admiration for the American and to inspire him 
to attain in his own writings some of the best qualities of 
Cooper’s stories, especially of the Mohicans—Cooper’s master- 
piece in the eyes of many of the French. Balzac himself 
admits the influence of Cooper in the case of Les Chouans,* 
and the Cooperesque quality is apparent in a number of his 
books, commonly in such features as reappearing characters, 
the repeated tic or “‘gag,’’ explanatory asides, the description 
of primitive warfare, and certain topographical details. 

The significance of what has just been said relative to 
Balzac’s true method and to Cooper’s influence will become 
more apparent as we progress in our study of the differ- 
ences between the original and the standard editions of Les 
Chouans. Let us consider now the variations up to the first 
attack. 

By this expression ‘‘the first attack’”’ Is meant that point 
in our story where the ambushed Chouans (Royalists) for the 
first time in the narrative open fire upon the small band of 
French recruits en route from Fougéres (their native place) 
to Mayenne. Up to this point, it may be recalled, Balzac 
devotes himself to a lengthy (and as many think, tedious) 
discourse, which includes among other things: a minute 


t Lettres a Etrangeére, Il, 246. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 13 


account of the French recruits under escort of the Blues 
(Republicans), the countryside, the prevalent method of 
warfare, the effects of isolation on the Breton, and the philo- 
logical history of certain curious words. 

Although the material up to the first attack may cause 
unfavorable criticism on the part of those who find it unduly 
drawn out, it is, nevertheless, decidedly Balzacian both in the 
choice and presentation of detail. Furthermore, it contains 
much that is strikingly Cooperesque. Thus, the physical 
portrait of the groups of French recruits affords an excellent 
example of accumulation and harmony, rich in animalisms, 
vegetablisms, and sociological features; the description of the 
valley of the Couésnon is built on lines similar to those 
characteristic of Cooper’s nature descriptions, and the charac- 
ter of the country and its inhabitants gives rise to actual 
references to the Mohicans, their methods of warfare, and 
language savoring of the redskin; the mannerisms and con- 
versation of the Blues illustrate well the use of the tic or 
“gag”? and a vocabulary adapted to men following a military 
occupation in life; and finally, the philological expositions 
and the reasons given for such descriptions as those of the 
French recruits and the Breton Valley offer good examples of 
explanatory asides. 

The fact, therefore, that up to the first attack there is 
concentrated so much that is characteristic of Balzac’s true 
method and of Cooper’s influence is one reason for using the 
first attack as a landmark in our study of variations. The 
other reason is that by noting all the variations up to this 
point in the story we shall be enabled to gain a fair conception 
of the care with which Balzac revised his books and of the 
number and kinds of changes made. 

The quantity and general nature of these variations are 
apparent in the table following. 


14 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 
Additions in the Michel Lévy (standard) edition: 


1s eh: MAD SPU UO NTA Le MRS, Bae a 37 

Lt tfc) cal. Mara PN NUN AO Pur WLR NIE E WOM eaStRl yl eu kk 70 
Omissions in the Michel Lévy edition: 

PHASES eset eee Sabu he lhe le toons orate suas taal ee 51 

A C0) 6 CORUNA UBER UGA TAG Ae Sa ORM TMCat US IS 75 
Substitutions in the Michel Lévy edition: 

PRTASCS ie eck salah eta his Uke alot Oe cae eee 194 

WTS SUS pees a ANU ih conar ng a Sonn Was a ao 165 
Changes in position in the Michel Lévy edition: 

PEEASES TS. WUE Re iwi Piet WRct U's Wile cel Ur penn G Coca ng e 37 

WV ORGS CaP al ole le ateilalle tao ptihe vaio ie is ene Ce na 18 

TOC elite a elds ele eee a ae nee 647 


The figures in the preceding table become impressive 
when we consider that they represent the number of changes 
made within a small portion of the story. The infinite care, 
too, with which these early pages were revised is maintained 
throughout the entire story. Moreover, the types of variations 
existing up to the first attack prevail to the end of the book. 

In noting typical examples of these variations, attention 
is called to the fact that an example may be illustrative of more 
than one kind of vartation but that the variation in italics repre- 
sents in each instance the point under discussion. ‘The abbrevi- 
ations O. and ML. refer to the original and the Michel Lévy 
editions respectively. Also, for purpose of contrast, examples 
of additions and omissions will be considered together whenever 
possible. Thus we shall begin with: 

ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE 
MICHEL LEVY EDITION 

i PHRASES 

In the case of the addition of phrases in the Michel Lévy 
edition, the two examples following indicate a conscious 
effort on Balzac’s part to supply minute information through 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 15 


instances of “the additional detail.”’ ‘The additional detail”’ 
is largely what the name implies, and may be defined simply 
as an unimportant or unessential item of description or exposi- 
tion that commonly would not be included. Balzac’s tendency 
toward the most minute precision in description and in ex- 
position is too well known to require comment. “The addi- 
tional detail” is a prevalent trait in his style and frequently 
adds strength to the local color, but “sometimes results in 
insignificant, merely photographic representation,” as in the 


following examples: 


O. Quelques-uns de ces paysans, 
et c’était le plus grand nombre, 
allaient pieds nus, ayant pour 
tout vétement une grande peau de 
chévre qui les couvrait jusqu’aux 
genoux [I, 2-3, ll. 18-21, 1]. 


O. ayant des bottes ou des 
souliers maintenus par des guétres 
{I, 6, ll. 17-18]. 


ML. Une partie des paysans—et 
c’était le plus grand nombre— 
allaient pieds nus, ayant pour 
tout vétement une grande peau 
de chévre qui les couvrait depuis 
le cou jusqu’aux genoux [p. 2, 
ll. 7-o]. 


ML. ayant des bottes @ revers ou 
des souliers maintenus par des 
guétres [p. 3, ll. 21-22]. 


As we might suppose, Les Chouans affords several other 


examples similar to the two just cited. On the other hand, 
cases occasionally exist where Balzac himself apparently 
found “the additional detail” cumbersome or unessential 


and therefore omitted it from his final text. 


O. petite ville ot les voyageurs 
qui font ce trajet ont coutume de se 
reposer [I, 2, ll. 5-7]. 


O. En entendant des sons qui 
semblaient partir de la corne de 
taureau avec laquelle les paysans 
de ces vallons rassemblent leurs 
troupeaux [I, 28, ll. 6-0]. 


For instance: 


ML. petite ville ot les voyageurs 
ont coutume de se reposer [p. 1, 
ll. 6-7]. 


ML. En entendant des sons qui 
semblaient sortir de la corne avec 
laquelle les paysans de ces vallons 
rassemblent leurs troupeaux [p. 10, 
ll. 26-27]. 


16 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


The next group of examples is chosen not as being typical 
of any trait characteristic of Balzac’s style but because the 
variations occur in parts of the story which partake of the 


Cooperesque. ‘Thus: 


O. Vabsence complete de nos lois, 
de nos mceurs, de notre habille- 
ment, de nos monnaies nouvelles, 
de notre langage, mais aussi une 
simplicité patriarcale s’accordent & 
rendre les habitans de ces cam- 
pagnes plus sauvages et plus pauvres 
de combinaisons intellectuelles que 
les Mohicans et les Peaux rouges 
de l’Amérique septentrionale [I, 40, 
ll. 13-22]. 


O. —Tu demandes pourquoi?... 
lui répondit une voix rauque et 
sauvage qui lui était inconnue 
[I, 28, Il. 3-5]. 


ML. Vabsence compléte de nos 
lois, de nos mceurs, de notre habille- 
ment, de nos monnaies nouvelles, 
de notre langage, mais aussi la 
simplicité patriarcale et d’héroi- 
ques vertus s’accordent 4 rendre 
les habitants de ces campagnes 
plus pauvres de combinaisons in- 
tellectuelles que ne le sont les 
Mohicans et les Peaux-Rouges de 
Amérique septentrionale, mais 
aussi grands, aussi rusés, aussi durs 
qu’eux [p. 14, ll. 20-26]. 


ML. —Tu demandes pourquoi? 
répondit une voix [p. 10, 1. 25]. 


In the first of the foregoing examples it is to be noted that 


Balzac adds to his comparison of the Bretons with the Mohi- 
cans and the Peaux-Rouges. The former, we are further 
informed, are aussi grands, ausst rusés, ausst durs as the 
Indians. 

In the same example and in the one following the omissions 
of plus sauvages and of rauque et sauvage are of special interest 
in view of the fact that such omissions are exceedingly rare. 
In likening the wild peasants of Brittany to Cooper’s Indians, 
Balzac often has recourse to these descriptive terms. A 
possible explanation of the omission of plus sauvages in the 
first example given is that it is made in order to render the 
comparison more accurate. The cause of the omission of 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK r7 


rauque et sauvage in the second instance is probably the desire 
on Balzac’s part to avoid the frequent repetition of these 
adjectives which he uses a number of times elsewhere in the 


story. 


The next variations evidently are made for the sake of 


clearness or emphasis. 


Up to the first attack four other 


examples are to be found similar to the following: 


O. cepays ressemble 4 un charbon 
glacé qui reste obscur au sein d’un 
brillant foyer [I, 41, ll. 4-6]. 


O. Aijinsi la guerre renaissait sans 
doute plus terrible 4 la suite d’une 
inaction de trois années [I, 46, 
Il. 12-15]. 


O. —Tonnerre de Dieu! n’allons 
pas fumer sur le tonneau citoyens! 
.. C’est porter de eau dans un 
panier que d’avoir du courage hors 
de propos [I, 55, ll. 4-7]! 


O. —Non, non, commandant, 
nous n’en viendrons pas 1a [I, 75, 
ll. 5-6]. 


ML. ce pays ressemble 4& un 
charbon glacé qui resterait obscur 
et noir au sein d’un brillant foyer 
[p. 14, ll. 29-30]. 


ML. Ainsi la guerre renaissait, 
sans doute plus terrible qu’autrefois, 
& la suite d’une inaction de trois 
années [p. 16, ll. 27-28]. 


ML. —Tonnerrede Dieu! n’allons 
pas fumer sur le tonneau de poudre, 
citoyens. C’est s’amuser a porter 
de Veau dans wun panier que 
d’avoir du courage hors de propos 
[p. 19, ll. 28-30]. 

ML. —Non, non, commandant, 


nous n’en viendrons pas la, di 
Gérard [p. 26, ll. 14-15]. 


Glancing back at our list of the general qualities of Balzac’s 
realism (p. 11), we note among them sympathy with ordinary 


life. 


Here, in the example following—the one example of its 


kind up to the first attack, though several occur later—the 
added phrase reminds us of Balzac’s sympathy with the 


peasant: 


O. La scéne précédente, décrite 
avec trop de complaisance peut- 
étre, recevra quelque lumiére d’une 
courte digression qu’il convient de 


ML. Il\convient de placer ici une 
digression pour faire partager les 
craintes du commandant Hulot a 
certaines personnes casaniéres habi- 


18 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


placer ici. Elle servira 4 mettre 
dans le secret des craintes du com- 
mandant Hulot certaines personnes 
casaniéres habituées 4 douter de 
tout parce qu’elles ne voient rien, 
et qui pourraient contredire l’exist- 
ence de Marche-a-terre et des 
honnétes paysans de l’Ouest [I, 


B77 38) Lars eS) 


tuées & douter de tout, parce 
qu’elles ne voient rien, et qui 
pourraient contredire l’existence de 
Marche-a-Terre et des paysans de 
VOuest dont alors la conduite fut 
sublime [p. 13, ll. 21-25]. 


Often we find examples such as the two below where the 
added phrases are merely grammatical corrections necessitated 
by constructions involving comparisons: 


O. —Nous sommes donc vrai- 
ment en danger ? demanda Gérard 
aussi étonné du_ sang-froid de 
Hulot que de sa passagére terreur 
[I, 50, ll. 3-6]. 


O. —Oh! si l’armée ne se méle 
pas un peu de notre gouvernement, 
dit Gérard, les avocats nous 
remettront plus mal qu’avant la 
révolution [I, 74, ll. 17-21]. 


ML. —Nous sommes donc vrai- 
ment en danger ? demanda Gérard, 
aussi étonné du_ sang-froid de 
Hulot qu’d lavait été de sa pas- 
sagére terreur [p. 17, ll. 34-36]. 


ML. —Oh! si l’armée ne se méle 
pas un peu de notre gouvernement, 
dit Gérard, les avocats nous 
remettront plus mal que nous ne 
lV étions avant la Révolution [p. 26, 


ll. 7-9]. 


Occasionally an addition such as the following occurs. 


In this instance, on account of the distance between subject 
and verb, a repetition or a summary of the subject is needed. 
Balzac supplies this deficiency in the standard edition and, 
ever thorough in the matter of detail, he adds a fresh com- 
ponent of the subject: 


ML. Les efforts tentés par quel- 
ques grands esprits pour conquérir 


O. Les efforts tentés par quelques 
bons esprits pour conquérir 4 la 


prospérité et a la vie sociale cette 
belle partie de la France, si riche 
de trésors ignorés, meurent [I, 41, 
ll. 7-10]. 


& la vie sociale et 4 la prospérité 
cette belle partie de la France, si 
riche de trésors ignorés; tout, 


méme les tentatives du gouverne- 


ment, meurt [p. 14, ll. 30-33]. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 19 

The next example to be cited is the addition of a phrase 
in the case of an animalism—the only example of its kind up 
to the first attack. Balzac, it will be observed, through haste 
or oversight, omits an important bit of information in his 


analogy in the original edition: 


O. Pendant que les Directeurs se 
battent entre eux comme des 
chevaux dans une écurie [I, 72, 
ll. 8—ro]. 


ML. Pendant que les directeurs 
se battent entre eux comme des 
chevaux sans avoine dans une 
écurie [p. 25, ll. 10-13]. 


Up to the first attack we have seven examples where 
Balzac evidently finds the passages in the original edition too 
ornate and flowery. For instance: 


O. attiraient l’ceil comme les fleurs 
brillantes d’une prairie, en tendant 
de ces piéges [I, 24-25, ll. 22, 1-2]. 


O. Les oiseaux chantaient Jeurs 
hymnes du matin, faisant ainsi 
rendre 4 la vallée une suave et 
sourde mélodie qui frémissait dans 
les airs comme une voix céleste 
[I, 25, ll. 15-19]. 


ML. attiraient l’oil par quel- 
ques-uns de ces piéges [p. 9, Il. 
26-27]. 


ML. Les oiseaux chantaient, et 
faisaient ainsi rendre a la vallée 
une suave, une sourde mélodie qui 
frémissait dans les airs [p. 9, ll. 
34-36]. 


The next group of examples is typical of a long list of 
phrases omitted for the sake of brevity. As many as thirty- 
three omissions of this type are to be found up to the first 


attack. 


O. Une nouvelle loi promulguée 
quelques jours avant le commence- 
ment de cette histoire et rendue le 
troisiéme jour complémentaire de 
Van VII qui venait de finir, ordon- 
nait d’organiser en légions ces 
faibles levées d’hommes [I, 13-14, 
ll. 20-21, 1-4]. 


ML. Donec, une nouvelle loi pro- 
mulguée quelques jours avant le 
commencement de cette histoire, 
et rendue le troisiéme jour com- 
plémentaire de l’an VII, ordonnait 
d’organiser en légions ces faibles 
levées d’hommes [p. 6, ll. 1-5]. 


20 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


O. sa verdure rivale de celle des 
iles d’Angleterre [I, 25, ll. 10-11]. 


O. Les seules réunions connues 
sont les assemblées éphéméres que 
le dimanche ou les fétes de la 
religion consacrent d@ /’église de la 
paroisse [I, 42, ll. 8-11]. 


ML. sa verdure rivale de celle 
d’Angleterre [p. 9, ll. 31-32]. 


ML. Les seules réunions connues 
sont les assemblées éphéméres que 
le dimanche ou les fétes de la 
religion consacrent 4 la paroisse 


[p. 15, ll. 9-11]. 


Let us now take up the variations under our next heading: 


ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE 
MICHEL LEVY EDITION 
WORDS 
With few exceptions, the addition and the omission of 
words are confined to pronouns, adjectives, and conjunctions. 
The examples following are typical of the changes made in the 
case of pronouns, not only in Les Chouans but in other stories 
of Balzac—César Birotteau, for instance. Up to the first 
attack we find no less than thirty-five such changes, the 
majority of which consist in the addition of personal pronouns. 


O. selon certains critiques, 
nuisent 4 la peinture des senti- 
mens [I, 2, ll. 15-17]. 

O. qui garnissaient ses jambes 
[I, 30, 1. ol. 

O. Le commandant, regardant 
tour 4 tour quatre hommes in- 
trépides dont il  connaissait 
Vadresse et Ilagilité, les appela 
silencieusement en les désignant 
du doigt [I, 62, ll. r1-15]. 


O. et encore nous voila pris, je 
suis sur, dans un traquenard [I, 74, 
ll. 14-16]. 

O. le cri de la chouette se fit 
entendre [I, 76, ll. 2-3]. 


ML. selon certains critiques, elles 
nuisent 4 la peinture des senti- 
ments [p. 2, ll. 5-6]. 


ML. qui lw garnissaient les 
jambes [p. 11, ll. 13-14]. 


ML. Le commandant regarda 
tour 4 tour quatre hommes in- 
trépides dont l’adresse et l’agilité 
lui étaient connues, 2 les appela 
silencieusement en les désignant 
du doigt [p. 22, ll. 9-12]. 


ML, Encore, nous voila pris, 
jen suis str, dans quelque tra- 
quenard [p. 26, ll. 5-6]. 


ML. le cri de la chouette, qui se 
fit entendre [p. 26, 1. 27]. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 21 


‘ 


O. Ce surnom était dai a ces 
premiers uniformes bleus et rouges 
dont le souvenir est encore assez 
frais pour ev rendre la description 
superflue [I, rz, ll. 6-9]. 


O. et il ne tarda pas 4 rompre le 
silence [I, 19, 1. 6]. 


ML. Ce surnom était di a ces 
premiers uniformes bleus et rouges 
dont le souvenir est encore assez 
frais pour rendre leur description 
superflue [p. 5, ll. 3-6]. 


ML. et ne tarda pas 4 rompre le 
silence [p. 7, ll. 30-31]. 


In the variations involving adjectives twenty-seven 
changes are made up to the first attack, fourteen of which are 
omissions in the Michel Lévy edition. The first example given 
concerns Hulot, the commandant of the Republican troops, 
and is of interest from the standpoint of the tic—the physical 
mannerism expressive of an (or the) outstanding trait in the 
nature of the character. Thus in the case of Hulot the tic 
takes the form of a grimace, expressive of severity. Through- 
out Les Chouans our attention is called time and again to the 
grimace of this old Republican. Obviously the deux sourcils 
play a prominent part in such a distortion of the face, and 
hence the aptness in the standard edition of the word gros 
in rendering the eyebrows more noticeable and the entire 
facial expression more severe: 


ML. et contracta deux gros sour- 
cils noirs qui donnaient une expres- 
sion sévére 4 sa physionomie 
[p. 10, ll. 19-20]. 


O. et, contractant deux sourcils 
noirs qui donnaient une expression 
sévére 4 sa physionomie [I, 27, 
ll. 15-17]. 


The next example cited serves to remind us that the word 
“social” as applied to l’homme had for Balzac a special sig- 
nificance. As Balzac says: 


Il n’y a qu’un animal. Le Créateur ne s’est servi que d’un seul et 
méme patron pour tous les étres organisés. L’animal est un principe 
qui prend sa forme extérieure, ou, pour parler plus exactement, les 
différences de sa forme, dans les milieux ot il est appelé 4 se développer. 
Les espéces zoologiques résultent de ces différences ... je vis que ... la 


22 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


société ressemblait 4 la nature. La société ne fait-elle pas de VPhomme, 
suivant les milieux ot son action se déploie, autant d’hommes différents 
qu il y a de variétés en zoologie? Les différences entre un soldat, un 
ouvrier, un administrateur, un avocat, un oisif, un savant, un homme 
d’Etat, un commercant, un marin, un poéte, un pauvre, un prétre, sont, 


9 


quoique plus difficiles 4 saisir, aussi considérables que celles qui dis- 
tinguent le loup, le lion, l’Ane, le corbeau, le requin, le veau marin, la 
brebis, etc. Ila donc existé, il existera donc de tout temps des espéces 
sociales comme il y a des espéces zoologiques.* 


The paragraph from which the following example is taken 
consists of a physical portrait of Marche-a-Terre, the synthetic 
details of which stress the analogy between him and un beuf. 
In fact, Marche-a-Terre is so much of an animal that he is 
scarcely a “social”’ being. 

O. enfin l’absence compléte des MZ. Enfin labsence compléte 
autres caractéres de lhomme des autres caractéres de |’homme 
rendait sa téte nue plus remar- social rendait cette téte nue plus 
quable encore [I, 29, ll. 6-o]. remarquable encore [p. 11, ll. 1-3]. 

As regards the omission of adjectives, we find that they 
are usually omitted for the sake of accuracy or because they 
are unessential, as in the two examples below. In the first 
of these examples the grimace of Hulot, judging from the 
various descriptions of it throughout the book, is too pro- 
nounced and self-evident to be accurately designated as petite. 
In the second example it may be taken for granted that a 
war of four years is cruelle. 


O. Hulot, faisant une petite gri- ML. Hulot fit alors une grimace 
mace qui lui était particuliére qui lui était particuliére [p. 7, 


[I, ro, ll. ro-rz]. ll. 33-34]. 
O. aprés,,une guerre cruelle de ML. aprés une guerre de quatre 
quatre années [I, 12, ll. 13-14]. années [p. 5, l. 21]. 


As to the addition and omission of conjunctions up to the 
first attack, nearly all the changes made are in the case of the 


“ Avant-propos.” (CEuvres complétes (Michel Lévy ed.), I, 2. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 23 


word e?. A few variations occur in the use of other conjunc- 
tions, but their number is so small as to render them of little 
importance. The conjunction ef, however, commands an 
astonishing amount of attention on Balzac’s part, and the 
changes are commonly made for emphasis, brevity, or coher- 


ence. 


examples: 

O. Le mot de harangue suffit a 
peine pour rendre toute la haine, 
les regrets et les désirs de vengeance 
qu’exprim€érent son geste hautain, 
sa parole bréve, sa contenance 
empreinte d’une énergie farouche 
et froide [I, 32, ll. 12-17]. 


O. Ila passé du bas-breton dans 
le francais. Ce mot est de notre 
langage actuel celui qui contient 
le plus de souvenirs antiques 
{I, 38, ll. 7-10]. 


O. leurs gilets rouges ou jaunes 
et ornés de deux rangées de bou- 
tons [I, 5, ll. 10-12]. 


O. Il ordonna, par un autre geste, 
de reprendre les armes; ef, lorsque 
le calme fut établi, il porta les 
yeux d’un coté de la route a 
Vautre, ... [I, 57, ll. 11-14]. 


Our next consideration is— 


Up to the first attack Balzac adds the word eleven 
times and omits it forty-one times. 


The following are typical 


ML. Le mot de harangue suffit 4 
peine pour rendre la haine, les 
désirs de vengeance qu’exprimérent 
un geste hautain, une parole bréve 
et la contenance empreinte d’une 
énergie farouche et froide [p. 12, 
ll. 3-5]. 

ML. Ilapassé du bas-breton dans 
le francais, et ce mot est, de notre 
langage actuel, celui qui contient 
le plus de souvenirs antiques 
[p. 13, ll. 27-20]. 

ML. leurs gilets rouges ou jaunes 
ornés de deux rangées de boutons 
[p. 3, ll. 4-5]. 

ML. Il ordonna, par un autre 
geste, de reprendre les armes. 
Lorsque le calme fut établi, il 
porta les yeux d’un cdté de la 
route 4 l’autre, ... [p. 20, ll. 21-23.] 


SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION 
PHRASES 


As indicated in the table on page 14, there are 194 instances 
up to the first attack of the substitution of phrases in the 
Michel Lévy edition, and these may be divided into six 


24 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


groups. ‘The first group illustrates a very prevalent change, 
no doubt made for the sake of clearness or emphasis; namely, 
the substitution of the noun and its modifiers for the pronoun. 


Thus: 


O. Il profita des prévisions il- 
lusoires de la loi [I, 16, ll. 1-2]. 


O. Ila de l’analogie avec le mot 
latin vir [I, 38, 1. 16]. 


ML. Ce militaire dévoué profita 
des prévisions illusoires de la loi 
[p. 6, ll. 27-28]. 


ML. Cemota de l’analogie avec 
le mot latin vir [p. 13, Il. 32-33]. 


The second group of examples typifies Balzac’s preference 
for the finite construction rather than for the participle— 
rarely does he favor the latter in Les Chouans. 


O. ils baissaient de nouveau leurs 
tétes sombres en reprenant leur 
contenance de désespoir [I, 10, 
ll, 1-3]. 


O. II gardait une attitude prophé- 
tique et apparaissait 14 comme le 
génie méme de la Bretagne, se 
relevant d’un sommeil de trois 
années [I, 33, ll. 1-4]. 


ML. ils baissaient de nouveau 
leurs tétes et reprenaient leur 
contenance de désespoir [p. 4, 
ll. 26-27]. 


ML. Il gardait une attitude 
prophétique et apparaissait la 
comme le génie méme de la 
Bretagne, qui se relevait d’un 
sommeil de trois années [p. 12, 
ll. 8-10}. 


The third group of examples concerns details of dress. 


Balzac’s care in appropriately clothing his characters arouses 
admiration. The place, the occasion, the person, are all 
considered in the selection of dress, and the result almost 
invariably is a consistent, realistic description, rich in wisely 
chosen details. Here are two interesting examples: 

ML. Leurs tétes étaient sur- 
montées d’une sale toque en laine 
rouge, semblable 4 ce bonnet 
phrygien que la République adop- 
tait alors comme embléme de la 
liberté [p. 2, ll. 20-22]. 


O. Leurs tétes étaient surmontées 
d’un bonnet de laine rouge, sem- 
blable 4 ce bonnet phrygien que la 
république adoptait alors comme 
embléme de la liberté [I, 3, ll. 
17-22]. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 


O. A partir du cou, il était 
enveloppé dans une espéce de 
sarreau ou blouse de toile rousse 
plus grossiére encore que celle des 
pantalons des réquisitionnaires les 
moins aisés [I, 29, ll. 15-19]. 


25 


ML. A partir du cou, il était 
enveloppé d’un sarrau, espéce de 
blouse en toile rousse plus gros- 
siére encore que celle des pantalons 
des conscrits les moins aisés [p. 11, 
ll. 6-8]. 


In the next group of examples we have instances where 


the same idea may be expressed in more than one way and 
Balzac shows a preference, possibly through whim, or for the 
sake of emphasis, or sometimes because of an appreciation 


of a subtle change in meaning: 


O. ilse promettait bien d’exécuter 
la loi 4 sa maniere [I, 17, ll. 14-15]. 


O. le changement du point de vue 
[I, 20, ll. 16-17]. 


O. demanda-t-il de nouveau de sa 
voix grossie par les fatigues de la 
guerre [I, 27, ll. 19-20]. 


O. Ce nom classique est comme 
un gage de la fidélité avec laquelle 
ils s’efforcent de conserver les 
traditions du langage et des 
meeurs galliques [I, 39-40, ll. 21, 
1-3]. 


O. Marche-a-terre ne laissa pas 
paraitre Ja moindre émotion [I, 68, 
ll. 2-3]. 


ML. il se_ promettait . bien 
d’exécuter la loi suivant son bon 
vouloir [p. 7, ll. 9-10]. 


ML. le changement de perspective 
[p. 8, 1. x4]. 


ML. demanda-t-il pour la seconde 
fois de sa voix grossie par les 
fatigues de la guerre [p. 10, Il. 
21-22]. 


ML. et ce nom classique est 
comme une récompense de la 
fidélité avec laquelle ils s’efforcent 
de conserver les traditions du 
langage et des meeurs gaéliques 
[p. 14, ll. 11-13]. 


ML. Marche-a-Terre ne_laissa 
paraitre aucune émotion [p. 24, 
Il. g-r0]. 


In the fifth group of examples we have changes (often 


slight) in passages which are more or less Cooperesque. 


O. Au milieu de 
(I, 6, 1. 12]. 


cetie troupe 


Thus: 


ML. au milieu de ces hommes a 
demi sauvages [p. 3, ll. 18-19]. 


26 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


O. II faisait croire &4 une absence 
si compléte de toute intelligence, 
que les officiers le comparérent 
tour 4 tour, dans cette situation, a 
un des animaux qui broutaient les 
gras pdturages de la vallée, aux 
sauvages de l’Ohio et 4 un Hotten- 
tot du cap de Bonne-Espérance 
[I, 35, ll. 10-16]. 


O. tout dans le pays devenait 
dangereux: le bruit comme le 
silence, la grace comme la terreur, 
car il y avait de la gloire a étre 
traitre & la France pour Dieu et le 
rot [I, 45, ll. 15-19]. 


O. il consulta le sable de la route, 
& la maniére des sauvages, pour 
tacher de découvrir les traces 
des pas de ces invisibles ennemis 
dont il connaissait l’audace et les 
avantages [I, 57-58, ll. 21, 1-4]. 


ML. Il faisait croire 4 une 
absence si compléte de toute 
intelligence, que les officiers le 
comparérent tour 4 tour, dans 
cette situation, 4 un des animaux 
qui broutaient les gras pAturages 
de la vallée, aux sauvages de 
VAmérique ou & quelque naturel 
du cap de Bonne-Espérance [p. 13, 
ll. 4-9]. 

ML. tout dans le pays devenait-il 
dangereux: le bruit comme le 
silence, la grace comme la terreur, 
le foyer domestique comme le 
grand chemin. J) y avait de la 
conviction dans ces _ trahisons. 
C’était des sauvages qui servaient 
Dieu et le roi ad la maniére dont les 
Mohicans font la guerre [p. 16, 
ll. 14-18]. 


ML. il consulta le sable de la 
route, 4 la maniére des sauvages, 
pour tAécher de découvrir quelques 
traces de ces invisibles ennemis 
dont l’audace lui était connue 
[p. 20, ll. 27-30]. 


The sixth group of examples illustrates the two instances 
up to the first attack of the substitution of phrases in the case 


of animalisms: 


O. Leurs longs cheveux tombant 
en méches plates s’unissaient avec 
tant de complaisance et d’habitude 
aux poils de la peau de chévre en 
cachant si complétement leurs 
visages baissés vers la terre, qu’on 
pouvait facilement prendre cette 
peau pour la leur, et les con- 


ML. Les méches plates de leurs 
longs cheveux s’unissaient si habi- 
tuellement aux poils de la peau de 
chévre et cachaient si compléte- 
ment leurs visages baissés vers la 
terre, qu’on pouvait facilement 
prendre cette peau pour la leur, 
et confondre, 4 la premiére vue, 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 27 


fondre, 4 la premiére vue, avec des 
bestiaux [I, 3, ll. 4-12]. 


O. 1 pourra défendre les frontiéres 
--- [L, 72, Il. 20-21]. 


Let us now take up: 


ces malheureux avec les animaux 
dont les dépouilles leur servaient de 
vétement [p. 2, ll. 11-16]. 


ML. Ce lapin défendra-t-il les 
frontiéres? ... [p. 25, ll. 18-10]. 


SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION 
WORDS 


Here in the first group of examples we have two variations 


in the case of animalisms: 


O. C’était un de ces vieux loups 
de guérite difficiles 4 surprendre 
[I, 16, ll. 16-18]. 


O. —Que diable ont donc tous 
ces serins-la [I, 19, ll. 12-13]? 


ML. Mais c’était un de ces 
vieux chiens de guérite difficiles a 
surprendre [p. 6, ll. 34-35]. 


ML. —Que diable ont donc tous 
ces muscadins-la [p. 7, 1. 35]? 


The following examples are typical of many up to the 
first attack, and indicate a preference on Balzac’s part for 
one of two nouns similar in meaning: 


O. Ce détachement, divisé en 
groupes plus ou moins nombreux, 
offrait une réunion de costumes 
[I, 2, ll. 8—ro]. 


O. habillement particulier aux 
paysans de l’Ouest [I, 4, ll. 15-16]. 


O. leurs’ bissacs _ paraissaient 
mieux garnis que ceux des autres 
[I, 6, ll. 6-8]. 


O. sur les sentimens qui divisaient 
cette masse d’hommes [I, 8, Il. 
II-12]. 


O. pour recommencer la guerre 
Berahirsi, 


ML. Ce détachement, divisé en 
groupes plus ou moins nombreux, 
offrait une collection de costumes 
[p. 1, ll. 7-8]. 


ML. vétement particulier aux pay- 
sans de l’Ouest [p. 2, 1. 32]. 


ML. leurs bissacs paraissaient 
mieux fournis que ne l’étaient ceux 
de leurs compagnons [p. 3, IL 
14-15]. 

ML. sur les opinions qui divi- 
saient ce rassemblement [p. 4, 
ll. 7-8]. 


ML. pour recommencer la /utie 


[pe 5,4. 22]. 


28 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


The next examples are typical of numerous instances 
where Balzac endeavors to be more consistent in his use of 
military terms. ‘Throughout Les Chouans Balzac has occasion 
to use such terms frequently, and in the original edition he 
often confuses the rank and the duties of military characters.' 


O. —Donnez dix hommes d’élite 
& un caporal [I, 56, ll. 13-14]. 

O. L’un deux nommé Larose, 
sergent connu de Hulot [I, 64, 
Il. 10-11]. 

O. répondit le jeune Jieutenant 
Gérard [I, 73, ll. 7-8]. 

O. Les conscrits, rassemblés par 
un lieutenant [I, 76, ll. 8-o]. 


ML. Donnez dix hommes d’élite 
a un sergent [p. 20, 1. ro]. 


ML. WL’un d’eux, nommé Larose, 
caporal connu de Hulot [p. 22, 
ll. 36-37]. 

ML. répondit le jeune adjudant 
Gérard [p. 25, ll. 23-24]. 

ML. Les conscrits, rassemblés 
par un officier [p. 26, ll. 30-31]. 


In Les Chouans Balzac frequently substitutes one verb 
for another—usually for accuracy in thought, occasionally 


for emphasis. 
variations of this type. 


O. ils avaient des bottes de di- 
verses formes [I, 7, ll. 8-o]. 


O. ils portaient sur leurs figures 
et dans leurs attitudes cette espéce 
d’uniforme que donne le malheur 
[I, 8, ll. 16-109]. 

O. chaque arbre méditait un piége 
[I, 45, ll. 1-2]. 

O. —Oh oui! dit le commandant, 
il nous’ en a furieusement cotité 
pour changer de costume [I, 75, 
ll. 13-15]. 


Up to the first attack there are thirteen 
Here are four examples: 


ML. Ceux-la véritables person- 
nages, portaient des bottes de 
diverses formes [p. 3, ll. 29-30]. 


ML. ils montraient sur leurs 
figures et dans leurs attitudes 
cette expression uniforme que 
donne le malheur [p. 4, ll. 10-12]. 


ML. chaque arbre masquait un 
piége [p. 16, 1. 6]. 
ML. —Oh! oui, s’écria le com- 
mandant, il nous en a furieusement 
cotité pour changer de costume 
[p. 26, ll. 20-21]. 


tIn the definitive edition Balzac endeavors to indicate the grades charac- 


teristic of the Republican army. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 29 


Balzac also makes many substitutions in the case of 
adjectives, and up to the first attack there are ten variations 


of this type. 


O. de toutes parts, des montagnes 
de schiste s’élévent en amphi- 
théatre; elles déguisent leurs flancs 
grisdires sous des foréts de chénes 
[I, 22, ll. 14-17]. 


O. de cette merveilleuse contrée 
(I, 27) ll. 4-5]. 
O. un fouet énorme [I, 31, 1. 1]. 


O. Les efforts tentés par quel- 
ques bons esprits [I, 41, ll. 7-8]. 


The following examples are typical: 


ML. De toutes parts, des mon- 
tagnes de schiste s’élévent en 
amphithéatre, elles déguisent leurs 
flancs rougedtres sous des foréts de 
chénes [p. 8, ll. 25-27]. 


ML. de cette belle contrée [p. 10, 
Eera|: 
ML. wn gros fouet [p. 11, 1. 21]. 


ML. Les efforts tentés par quel- 
ques grands esprits [p. 14, Il. 
30-31]. 


This last group of substitutions, somewhat miscellaneous 
in character, is typical of a long list of such variations in 
Les Chouans, and involves the definite article and the possessive 


and demonstrative adjectives. 


O. et ces regards, tout en an- 
noncant JT intelligence humaine, 
causaient plus de terreur que de 
plaisir [I, 3, ll. 15-17]. 


O. Cette face [I, 29, 1. 10]. 


O. ses jambes et ses cuisses [I, 30, 
1. oj. 


O. comme si /e chouan eit fait 
une longue route a travers les 
halliers [I, 36, ll. 4-6]. 


O. ilse mit 4 examiner la position 
ou Jes ennemis voulaient le sur- 
prendre [I, 49, Il. 4-5]. 


Thus: 


ML. et leurs regards, tout en 
annoncant Jl intelligence humaine, 
causaient certainement plus de 
terreur que de plaisir [p. 2, Il. 
18-20]. 


ML. La face [p. 11, l. 3]. 


ML. les jambes et les cuisses 
[p. 11, ll. 13-14]. 


ML. comme si ce chouan eit 
fait une longue route A travers les 
halliers [p. 13, ll. 14-15}. 


ML. il se mit 4 examiner la 
position dans laquelle ses ennemis 
voulaient le surprendre [p. 17, 
ll. 22-23]. 


30 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


Our next topic is: 


CHANGES IN POSITION IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION 
PHRASES 


The thirty-seven changes in the position of phrases up 
to the first attack usually involve substitutions of one kind 
or another. For the most part, as in the three examples 
following, they are made for the sake of emphasis, or in order 
to preserve the natural grammatical position of the phrase, 
or because of change in voice in the case of the verb: 


O. tandis que d’autres tenaient ML. tandis que, par économie, 


leurs souliers 4 la main par éco- 
nomie {I, 4, ll. r9-21]. 


O. Au milieu de cette troupe, ca 
et la, les citadins apparaissaient 
[I, 6, ll. 12-13]. 


O. dont le paysan garde encore 
religieusement la forme [I, 6, 
Il. 2-4]. 


d’autres tenaient leurs souliers a 
la main [p. 2, ll. 35-36]. 


ML. Quelques citadins apparais- 
salient au milieu de ces hommes @ 
demi sauvages [p. 3, ll. 18-19]. 


ML. dont la forme est encore 
religieusement gardée par nos pay- 
sans [p. 3, ll. 11-12]. 


Passing now to the last division of variations as given in 


the table on page 14: 


CHANGES IN POSITION IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION 
WORDS 


With few exceptions, the eighteen changes in the position 
of words in the Michel Lévy edition are merely corrections of 
errors due, no doubt, to haste in writing. The two groups 
following exemplify the most common changes. In the first 
group the position of the adjective is shifted because its loca- 
tion in the original edition caused it to modify a word other 
than the one desired. In the second group attention is called 
to the change in position of the adverb alors. Of all the words 
or phrases subject to variation in Les Chouwans, none perhaps 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 31 


undergoes so many changes as alors. All through the story 
Balzac changes the position of this word repeatedly: 


O. un chapeau de feutre grossier ML. un grossier chapeau de feutre 
I, 4, 1. 4]. [p. 2, 1. 25]. 


O. que cette voiite bleue fit MZ. que cette immense votte 
immense firmament [I, 23, Il. bleue fat le firmament [p. 9, 1. ro]. 
10-11]. 


O. Alors ils examinaient 4 la MZ. Ils examinaient alors A la 
dérobée les bois [I, 9, ll. 15-16]. dérobée les bois [p. 4, ll. 21-22]. 


O. Alors chaque champ était une MLZ. Chaque champ était alors 
forteresse [I, 44-45, ll. 21, 1]. une forteresse [p. 16, ll. 5—6]. 


The next examples illustrate changes in spelling and in 
punctuation. In the total number of variations given in 
the table on page 14, such changes are not included, for 
the reason that it is not always possible to determine whether 
the variations in spelling and in punctuation are due to Balzac 
or to the printer. As many as forty-nine changes in spelling 
occur up to the first attack. Throughout the book an interest- 
ing change in French orthography is observed in the case of 
nouns and of adjectives terminating in -ant and in -eni. In 
the original edition such words in the plural end in -ams and 
in -ens respectively, but in the standard edition they regain 
the ¢.* Thus: 


O. habitans [I, 4o, 1. 18]. ML. habitanis [p. 14, 1. 23]. 

O. menagans [I, 209, 1. 3]. ML. menacanis [p. 10, 1. 36]. 

O. changemens [I, 66, 1. 8]. ML. changemenis [p. 23, 1. 23]. 

O. mécontens [I, 11, l. rz]. ML. mécontenis [p. 5, l. 7]. 
Other examples of variations in spelling: 

O. Suwarow [I, 12, 1. 7]. ML. Souvorov [p. 5, 1. 18]. 

O.  sarreau [I, 36, l. 2]. ML. sarrau [p. 13, 1. 12]. 


* This is a general change in French orthography effected approximately 
between the dates of the two editions under consideration. 


a2 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


Os) Galle [Ty 33.5 a1): 
O. des meeurs galliques [I, 40, 
sh 


ML. Gaéls [p. 13, 1. 20]. 
ML. des mceurs gaéliques [p. 14, 
lyri. 


As to variations in punctuation, more than two hundred 
changes are made up to the first attack, but a number of these 
are probably due to successive printers. 

The last three examples to be cited in this chapter are not 
given to illustrate any special type of variations but to afford 
some conception of the frequency and the complexity of the 
variations as they appear on a single page in the story. In 
order to facilitate our study, the variations hitherto cited 
have been removed from their setting and classified. In 
the examples following’ we have an ensemble of changes 
typical of the pages up to the first attack and of many pages 


thereafter: 


O. les riches accidens d’ombre et 
de lumiére, les fantastiques per- 
spectives qui naissaient des places 
ou manquaient les arbres, ou 
s’étendaient les eaux, ov s’élevaient 
des tertres, oU s’abaissaient des 
sinuosités coquettes gui gardaient 
leurs trésors pour une seconde vue, 
et les horizons vaporeux des mon- 
tagnes; si le souvenir colorie, pour 
ainsi dire, ce dessin aussi fugace 
que le moment ou il est pris, les 
personnes, pour lesquelles ces ta- 
bleaux ne sont pas sans mérite, 
auront une image imparfaite encore 
du magique spectacle dont l’Ame 
assez peu impressionnable des 
officiers fut comme saisie. 


ML. les riches accidents d’ombre 
et de lumiére, Jes horizons vaporeux 
des montagnes, les fantastiques per- 
spectives qui naissaient des places 
ou manquaient les arbres, ow 
s’étendaient les eaux, ot fuyaient 
de coquettes sinuosités; si le 
souvenir colorie, pour ainsi dire, 
ce dessin aussi fugace que le 
moment ou il est pris, les personnes 
pour lesquelles ces tableaux ne 
sont pas sans mérite auront une 
image imparfaite du magique 
spectacle par lequel Ame encore 
impressionnable des jeunes officiers 
fut comme surprise. 


t Attention is called to the fact that in these examples only the pages from 


the editio princeps are given in their entirety—the average page in the original 
edition contains approximately 130 words, that in the Michel Lévy edition, 
400 words. 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 33 


Ils pensérent alors que ces 
pauvres réquisitionnaires abandon- 
naient leur pays et leurs chéres 
coutumes pour aller mourir peut- 
étre en des terres étrangéres, ils 
leur pardonnérent involontaire- 
ment un retard qu’ils comprirent 
[I, 26]. 


O. [secré]tes et critiques, les deux 
officiers gui savaient que leur com- 
mandant ne s’alarmait jamais en 
vain, prirent alors cette contenance 
grave qu’ont les militaires au fort 
du danger, lorsque ce sont de ces 
hommes puissans qui voient un peu 
loin dans les affaires humaines. 
Gérard voulut répondre, afin de 
continuer une conversation féconde 
en nouvelles politiques dont le 
commandant paraissait taire une 
partie; mais un signe de Hulot 
arréia sa langue, et ils regardérent 
tous les trois Marche-a-ferre. 

Ce dernier ne donna pas la 
moindre marque d’émotion en se 
voyant surveillé par ces hommes 
redoutables d’intelligence et de 
force corporelle. La curiosité des 
deux officiers, pour lesquels cette 
sorte de guerre était nouvelle, fut 
vivement excitée par le commence- 
ment d’une affaire qui offrait un 


I, 54]. 


O. Hulot ayant jeté sur Beau-pied 
un regard sévére, le silence exigé 
sous les armes régna tout-d-coup. 


Pensant alors que ces pauvres 
gens abandonnaient @ regret leur 
pays et leurs chéres coutumes pour 
aller mourir peut-étre en des terres 
étrangéres, ils leur pardonnérent 
involontairement un retard qu’ils 
comprirent [pp. 9-10, ll. 36-37, 
I-11]. 


ML. secrétes et critiques, les deux 
officiers, sachant que leur com- 
mandant ne s’alarmait jamais en 
vain, prirent alors cette contenance 
grave qu’ont les militaires au fort 
du danger, lorsqu’ids sont forte- 
ment trempés et habitués @ voir un 
peu loin dans les affaires humaines. 
Gérard, que son grade, supprimé 
depuis, rapprochait de son chef, 
voulut répondre, e/ demander toutes 
les nouvelles politiques dont une 
partie était évidemment passée sous 
silence; mais un signe de Hulot 
lui imposa silence; et tous les trois 
ils se mirent a regarder Marche-a- 
Terre. Ce chouan ne donna pas la 
moindre marque d’émotion en se 
voyant sous la surveillance de ces 
hommes aussi redoutables par leur 
intelligence que par leur force 
corporelle. La curiosité des deux 
officiers, pour lesquels cette sorte 
de guerre était nouvelle, fut vive- 
ment excitée par le commence- 
ment d’une affaire qui offrait un 


[p. 19, ll. 12-25]. 
ML. Hulot ayant jeté sur Beau- 


Pied un regard sévére, le silence 
exigé sous les armes régna tout & 


34. VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


Au milieu de ce silence solennel, 
les pas tardifs des conscrits, sous 
les pieds desquels le sable criait 
sourdement, rendaient un son 
régulier qui, mélé @ la voix har- 
monieuse de la vallée, ajoutait une 
émotion écrasante 4 cette anxiété 
générale. Ce sentiment inde- 
scriptible ne peut étre compris que 
de ceux qui, en proie 4 une attente 
cruelle dans un profond et nocturne 
silence, ont senti redoubler les 
sourds et larges battemens de leur 
coeur en entendant quelque bruit 
monotone et répété verser l’angoisse 
comme goutte 4a goutte dans leur 
ame riche et forte. 

Le commandant se replagant au 
milieu de la route, commengait a 
se demander: Me trompé-je? I 
regardait déja avec [I, 60]. 


coup. Au milieu de ce silence 
solennel, les pas tardifs des con- 
scrits, sous les pieds desquels le 
sable criait sourdement, rendaient 
un son régulier qui ajoutait une 
vague €émotion & cette anxiété 
générale. Ce sentiment indéfinis- 
sable sera compris seulement de 
ceux qui, en projie 4 une attente 
cruelle, ont senti, dans le silence 
des nuits, les larges battemenés de 
leur coeur redoublés par quelque 
bruit dont le retour monotone 
semblait leur verser la terreur, 
goutte 4 goutte. En se replacant 
au milieu de la route, le com- 
mandant commencait 4 se de- 
mander: “Me trompé-je?” I 
regardait déja avec [p. 21, Il. 
16-26]. 


As we look back now over all the variations given, several 


facts stand out clearly. First, the number of variations, as 
formerly mentioned, cannot fail to impress us with the infinite 
pains which the writer took to perfect the story—and if we 
compare the original and the revised editions of other stories 
of Balzac, we shall often find a similar painstaking scrupulous- 
ness. Secondly, when we bear in mind the characteristics 
of Balzac’s method as given on page 11 and consider the 
different types of variations cited, we see that the changes 
foreshadow the permanent traits which prevail in all of 
Balzac’s later writing. Furthermore, the examples quoted 
afford a fair conception of Balzac’s command of his mother- 
tongue—the range of his vocabulary, his consciousness of 
subtle distinctions in language, and his appreciation of the 


VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 35 


possibilities and effects of various modes of expression. 
Lastly, the Cooperesque touches indicate no tendency to 
break away from the influence of the American author, but 
rather zealous efforts to maintain the atmosphere of The Last 
of the Mohicans. Our next chapter will throw more light on 
some of these points. 


Il 


SALIENT VARIATIONS AFTER THE 
FIRST ATTACK 


The first variations to be considered are further changes in 
the use of animalisms. After the first attack fourteen varia- 
tions of this nature are to be found, two of which concern 
Marche-a-Terre whom we have formerly mentioned.* 

As an example of the ‘‘bestial”’ type, Marche-a-Terre is a 
masterpiece, always cleverly delineated and always consist- 
ently drawn. Like an ox in appearance, he is “‘large des 
épaules,” with “une téte presque aussi grosse que celle d’un 
boeuf, ... ses Jarges lévres retroussées par des dents blanches 
comme de la neige, ses grands et ronds yeux noirs garnis de 
sourcils menacants, ses orezlles pendantes et ses cheveux roux 
appartenaient moins a4 notre belle race caucasienne qu’au 
genre des herbivores.’ In nature he resembles the dog. His 
ruling passion is fidelity to God and to his king, ‘‘a dog-like 
fidelity which, guided by instinct rather than by intelligence, 
[asks] no questions, follows blindly on with unswerving tenacity 
of purpose, knowing neither fatigue, disappointment, nor 
defeat.’’ 

Marche-a-Terre is thus typical of the domestic animal, 
and the occasions when he is compared to animals of a fiercer 


™ According to Serval, Marche-a-Terre is the surname of Tréhard, a Chouan. 
The man actually existed, but in the story “le personnage est un agrégat””—a 
composite of the real Marche-a-Terre and various other individuals whose 
misdeeds are attributed to him (Serval, of. cit., pp. 28-29). 

2 Elizabeth Dall, ‘““Animalism” in Balzac. A Master’s dissertation (not 
printed). University of Chicago (1918), p. 6. 

3 [bid., p. 8. 


36 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 37 


kind are exceptions, not the rule. In the first example 
following, Marche-a-Terre is, in the original edition, likened 
to a wolf by his sweetheart Francine, whom he has been 
severely catechizing. Balzac eliminates this analogy, possibly 
because lowp is neither in keeping with the character of 
Marche-a-Terre nor conveys in any way the idea desired; 
namely, un confesseur. 

In the second example Balzac omits the animalism in the 
standard edition, obviously for the reason that in the sentence 
following the example in question he compares Marche-a- 
Terre to un de ces gros chiens de roulier and considers the 
latter analogy sufficient and more appropriate. Thus: 


O. Or, comment veux-tu que ML. Or, comment veux-tu que 
jaille encore mettre un gros loup  j’aille encore mettre aprés moi un 
comme toi aprés moi [I, 185, confesseur aussi rigide que toi 
ll. 12-14.] ? [p. 65, Il. 26-28] ? 


O. Elle l’apercut indistinctement, 
a travers l’obscurité de l’écurie, se 
coucher dans la paille @ la maniére 
des bétes et y prendre une position 
d’ou il pouvait voir tout ce qui se 
passerait dans l’auberge. II s’était 
ramassé de telle sorte que, de loin 
comme de prés, l’espion le plus 
rusé l’aurait facilement pris pour 
un de ces gros chiens de roulier, 
tapis en rond et dormant les pattes 
placées sous leur gueule [II, 6-7, 
Il. 15-21, 1-3]. 


ML. elle Vexamina, mais _in- 
distinctement, A travers l’obscurité 
de l’écurie, oti il se coucha dans la 
paille en prenant une position d’ou 
il pouvait observer tout ce qui se 
passerait dans l’auberge. Marche- 
a-Terre était ramassé de telle sorte 
que, de loin comme de prés, 
Vespion le plus rusé l’aurait facile- 
ment pris pour um de ces gros 
chiens de roulier, tapis en rond et 
qui dorment, la gueule placée sur 
leurs pattes [p. 70, ll. 1-8]. 


The next variations illustrate instances where Balzac again 


omits animalisms—sometimes because they do not convey 
the thought desired, often for the reason that the too frequent 
use of such analogies detracts from their value or importance 
in the story: 


38 


O. —Ce jeune homme est un 
aigle!... se dit mademoiselle de 
Verneuil [II, 12, ll. 14-15]. 


O. Une trentaine de chouans qui 
dormaient sous les rateliers et dans 
la paille, levérent la téte comme 
une meute de chiens [II, 81-82, 
Il. 21, 1-2]. 


O. mais ses yeux perdaient in- 
sensiblement la rigueur de ceux 
d’un chat [III, 1o2, ll. 5-7]. 


O. —Savez-vous, ma jolie co- 
lombe, que le marquis [III, 105, 
ll. 14-15]. 


O. et 1a, ses yeux de lynx aper- 
curent Marie, s’enfuyant avec la 
légéreté d’un oiseau 4 travers les 
sentiers [IV, 60, ll. 1-4]. 


O. et s’élancant hors de la chau- 
miére avec la légéreté d’une biche 
[IV, 97, ll. 2-3]. 


In the next two examples 
for another: 


O. C’était en effet un de ces 

voyageurs incommodes et peu 

sociaux qui sont dans une voiture 

comme un pourceau résigné que 

lon méne les pattes liées au 
s il ee 

marché voisin [I, 128, ll. 17-21]. 


O. La ils virent une centaine de 
chouans ajuster, comme s’lls ti- 
raient des Japins, les derniers 


VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


ML. —Ce jeune homme est 
singuliérement distingué pour un 
républicain, se dit mademoiselle de 
Verneuil [p. 72, ll. 5-6]. 


ML. Une trentaine de chouans 
qui dormaient sous les r&teliers 
et dans la paille levérent la téte 
[p. 96, ll. 33-34]. 


ML. mais en méme temps ses 
yeux arides [p. 186, ll. 19-20]. 


ML. Savez-vous que le marquis 
[p. 187, l. 25]. 


ML. Corentin courut vers la 
Promenade, et y arriva mal- 
heureusement assez 4 propos pour 
apercevoir de 1a les moindres 
mouvements de Marie [p. 256, 
ll. 22-24]. 


ML. et s’élanca hors de la chau- 
miére [p. 266, 1. 7]. 


Balzac substitutes one animal 


ML. C’était, en effet, un de ces 
voyageurs incommodes et peu 
sociables qui sont dans une voiture 
comme un veau résigné que |’on 
méne, les pieds liés, au marché 
voisin [p. 45, ll. 9-11]. 


ML. ia, ils virent une centaine 
de chouans qui ajustaient quel- 
ques soldats survivant a leur 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 


soldats qui survivaient a leur 
premiére décharge et les faire 
tomber [II, 208-0, ll. 20, 1-4]. 


39 


premiére décharge, et qui tiraient 
sur eux comme sur des Jiévres 
[p. 146, ll. 24-27]. 


The last two variations in the case of animalisms are 
additions of appropriate comparisons: 


O. —Eh bien! vieux sac 4 cidre, 
reprit le guide farouche, marche 
comme sur du beurre, sinon, nous 
allons laisser 14 nos carcasses plus 
t6t qu’il ne le faudra [IV, 183, 
ll. 12-15]. 


O. Le chemin du chateau jusqu’a 
la porte Saint-Sulpice était occupé 
par une armée [IIT, 120, ll. 7-0]. 


ML. —Eh bien, vieux sac a 
sous, reprit le chef, glisse sur ton 
ventre comme une anguille de haie, 
sinon nous allons laisser ]4 nos 
carcasses plus tdt qu’il ne faudra 
[p. 295, ll. 14-16]. 


ML. Sept 4 huit cents chouans 
armés s’agitaient dans le faubourg 
Saint-Sulpice comme des fourmis 
dans une fourmiliére [pp. 191-92, 
ll. 37, 1-2]. 


Closely allied to this subject’of animalisms is the use of 


what we may call vegetablisms. 


Analogies between man and 


the vegetable kingdom occur time and again in Les Chouans, 


though variations in their use are exceedingly rare. 
examples following are typical: 


O. il lui répondit en la regardant 
avec des yeux semblables 4 des 
prunelles sauvages [II, 188, Il. 5-8]. 


O. Francine tremblait comme /es 
feuilles mobiles du bouleau sous 
Veffort d’une brise [II, 190, ll. 6-8]. 


The two 


ML. et lui répondit en la re- 
gardant avec des yeux ferribles 


[p. 139, ll. 17-18]. 
ML. Quoique Francine e#t peur 
[p. 140, l. ro]. 


The third type of variations to be considered—changes 


in names—brings up the subject of reappearing characters. 
Cooper employed this device with admirable success, and, as 
already mentioned, it is quite possible that Balzac owes his 
idea of reappearing characters to the American writer. At the 
time of writing Les Chowans (1828), however, Balzac had not 
yet planned to link the characters in his novels—not until 


40 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


1833 did that idea occur to him.’ The carrying out of such 
a plan in the case of the story under consideration therefore 
involved (1) the repetition in other stories of names of charac- 
ters found in Les Chouans and (2) the change of certain names 
in Les Chouans to those of characters created during or after 
1833. Thelatter principle accounts, as we shall see, for many | 
of the variations in names. 

In the standard edition of Les Chouans there are twenty- 
two reappearing characters, as shown in the following list: 


(1) Bauvan, le comte de (14) Leroi, Pierre (Marche-a- 
(2) Berthier, Alexandre Terre) 
(3) Castéran, Blance de (15) Loudon, le prince de 
(4) Brigaut, le major (16) Montauran, le marquis Al- 
(5) Cibot, Jean (Pille-Miche) phonse de 
(6) Corentin (17) Montauran, la marquise Al- 
(7) Esgrignon, le marquis d’ phonse de 
(8) Falcon, Jean (18) Montauran, le marquis de 
(9) Fontaine, le comte de (frére cadet d’Alphonse de 
(10) Fouché, Joseph Montauran) 
(11) Guénic, le baron du (19) Troisville, le vicomte de 
(x2) Hulot, le commandant (20) Valois, le chevalier de 
(13) La Billardiére, le baron Fla- (21) Verneuil, le duc de 

met de (22) Vissard, le chevalier du 


t Surville, Balzac, Sa Vie et Ses GEuvres, p. 95. 


2 The list includes characters mentioned in other novels, regardless of 
whether they do or do not actually participate in the action. See Balzac’s 
Reappearing Characters, by Ethel Preston; Repertoire de la Comédie humaine 
de H. de Balzac, by Cerfbeer and Christophe; and annotations to the Conard 
edition of Les Chouans. 

Balzac’s attempt to make Mme du Gua a reappearing character was not 
wholly successful. According to MM. Bouteron and Longnon: “Il est clair 
que Balzac cherche ici 4 opérer la fusion de Mme du Gua avec la fille de Mme 
de la Chanterie, Henriette Bryond des Tours-Miniéres, qui, maftresse du 
chevalier du Vissard, périt en 1810 sur l’échafaud, victime de sa complicité 
dans l’affaire des Chauffeurs de Mortagne. Malheureusement pour l’exactitude 
de cette identification, Mlle de la Chanterie, selon Balzac lui-méme, ne pouvait 
avoir que dix ans en 1799 (L’Envers de l’histoire contemporaine).”” Les Chouans, 
Conard edition, p. 410. 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 41 


As many as sixty-nine variations in names occur in the two 
editions with which we are concerned, and among these 
changes fifteen reappearing characters are represented. In 
the first group of examples following, it is to be observed that 
Balzac adds the names of reappearing characters in the 


standard edition. Thus: 


O. [The entire sentence is omit- 
tee Leeysr lL r3.] 


O. —Elle a péri avec son pére, 
dit-elle brusquement [II, 10, ll. 
1-2]. 


O. [The entire sentence is omit- 
ted.] [II, 173, 1. 12.] 


O. —Voici la-bas deux nouveaux 
chefs de la Vendée ?>—Celui-ci est 
le marquis de P... l’agent de 
VAngleterre, je le crois de bonne 
foi [II, 179, ll. 17-20]. 


ML. Le chevalier de Valois, le 
marquis d’Esgrignon et les Trois- 
ville étaient, disait-on, leurs cor- 
respondants dans le département 
de Orne [p. 53, ll. 16-18]. 


ML. —Elle a péri sur l’échafaud 
aprés l’affaire de Savenay, elle 
était venue au Mans pour sauver 
son frére le prince de Loudon, lui 
dit brusquement sa mére [p. 74, 
Il. 17-19]. 


ML. Le baron du Guénic, sur- 
nommé l’Jntimé, qui, parmi tous 
ces hommes rassemblés par de 
graves intéréts, paraissait autorisé 
par son nom et par son rang & 
traiter familiérement Montauran, 
le prit par le bras et l’emmena 
dans un coin [p. 131, ll. 20-24]. 


ML. Voici la-bas deux nouveaux 
chefs de la Vendée. Le premier, 
que vous avez entendu nommer le 
Grand-Jacques, est le comte de 
Fontaine; Vautre est la Billardiére, 
que je vous ai déja montré [p. 136, 
ll. 16-19]. 


The next group of examples illustrates substitutions in 
thejcase of names. Again, with few exceptions, we have the 
insertion of reappearing characters in the standard edition. 


42 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


O. Ces menées coincidaient avec 
les nouvelles venues de la Vendée 
ou des intrigues semblables agi- 
taient la contrée, sous l’influence 
de quatre chefs célébres: MM. 
Vabbé Bernier, d’Autichamp, de 
Chatillon et Suzannet [I, 151, 
ll. 8-13]. 


O. —Oui, dit-il je suis émigré et 
condamné 4 mort. Je suis le 
marquis de Marigny [II, 108, Il. 


16-17]. 
O. —C’est le chevalier de Renty 
LE erates, 


O. Je me nomme Beau-pied [nom 
de guerre of Jean Falcon] [III, 27, 
ll. 14-15]. 

O. chez maitre Douleure, le no- 
taire de Fougéres [III, 113, ll. 13- 
T4]. 

O. Je crois que ce diable de Cot- 
tereau, le contrebandier, est cause 
de tout le tumulte [ITI, 222, Il. 18- 
20]. 


O. —Vous parlez admirablement 
bien, monsieur de Longuy [III, 
228, ll. 18-10]. 


O. Au milieu d’eux, l’abbé Gudin, 
le comte de*** et le chevalier de 
Renty se consultaient pour aider 
le marquis 4 repousser des préten- 
tions ‘aussi exagérées [III, 234, 
Ihige7|. 

O. Le jeune chevalier de Renty, 
impatient de se faire pardonner la 
plaisanterie qui avait donné le 


ML. Ces menées_ coincidaient 
avec les nouvelles de la Vendée, 
ou des intrigues semblables agi- 
taient la contrée, sous |’influence 
de quatre chefs célébres, MM. 
Vabbé Vernal, le comte de Fontaine, 
de Chatillon et Suzannet [p. 53, 
ll, 13-16]. 


ML. —vVous avez presque deviné, 
dit-il; je suis émigré, condamné a 
mort, et je me nomme le vicomie de 
Bauvan [p. 107, ll. 4-5]. 


ML. —C’est le fameux major 
Brigaut [p. 132, 1. 36]. 


ML. Je me nomme Jean Falcon, 
dit Beau-Pied [p. 161, 1. 5]. 


ML. chez maitre Patrat, le no- 
taire de Fougéres [p. 190, 1. 20]. 


ML. Je crois que ce diable de 
Rifoél (le chevalier du Vissard) 
est cause de tout le tumulte [p. 224, 
ll. 24-25]. 


ML. —Vous parlez admirable- 
ment bien, monsieur du Vissard 


[Die27 ile Ele 


ML. Au milieu d’eux, l’abbé 
Gudin, le comte de Bauvan, le baron 
du Guénic, se consultaient pour 
aider le marquis 4 repousser des 
prétentions si exagérées [p. 228, 
ll. 32-35]. 

ML. Le jeune et beau chevalier 
du Vissard, impatient de se faire 
pardonner la plaisanterie qui avait 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 43 


signal des injures 4 la Vivetiére, 
s’avanca vers elle [IV, 6, ll. 6-o]. 


O. —Marie Nathalie, fille de 
mademoiselle Blanche d’Haute- 
feuille et de Victor-Amédée, duc 


donné le signal des injures A la 
Vivetiére, s’avanca vers elle [p. 234, 
ll. 7-9]. 

ML. —Marie-Nathalie, fille de 
mademoiselle Blanche de Castéran, 
décédée abbesse de Notre-Dame de 


de Verneuil [{IV, 213, ll. 19-21]. Séez, et de Victor-Amédée, duc de 


Verneuil [p. 305, ll. 1-3]. 


Attention is called to the fact that the abbé Bernier, 
d’Autichamp, the marquis de Marigny, and maitre Douleure 
(properly spelled Deleurme) were real people.? It is to be 
observed also that three different characters substitute for the 
suppressed chevalier de Renty. 

In addition to the variations involving the names of reap- 
pearing characters, there are many minor changes in the use 
of names. Thus, for the sake of clearness or emphasis Balzac 
uses the name of a character rather than a pronoun or some 
other part of speech: 


O. Ces éloquentes  allocutions 
adressées aux masses et dont il 


ML. Ces éloquentes allocutions 
adressées aux masses, et que 


était, pour ainsi dire, l’inventeur, 
produisaient, dans ces temps de 
patriotisme et de miracles, des 
effets prodigieux [I, 154, ll. 3-8]. 


O. lasainte vierge d’Auray [I, 185, 
]. 18]. 


Bonaparte avait, pour ainsi dire, 
inventées, produisaient, dans ces 
temps de patriotisme et de 
miracles, des effets prodigieux 
[p. 54, ll. 16-10]. 

ML. sainte Anne d’Auray [p. 65, 
Lyk 


This latter variation occurs numerous times in Les Chouans. 
In the standard edition Balzac invariably seems to prefer 


“Anne”’ to verge. 


Balzac also has a tendency to confuse characters and their 
names—a practice which gives rise to such variations as are 


in the next two examples: 


t Serval, op. cit., pp. 52-53- 


44. VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


O. Merle se hasarda 4 lui de- 
mander [I, 164, l. 17]. 


O. —Portez arme! par file a 
gauche, en avant, marche! ... dit 
Merle [I, 165, ll. 3-4]. 


ML. Gérard se hasarda aA lui 
demander [p. 58, 1. 20]. 


ML. —Portez armes! Par file 4 
gauche, en avant, marche! dit 
Gérard [p. 58, ll. 25-26]. 


Cases of the omission of names in the Michel Lévy edition 


are very rare and ordinarily involve other types of variations. 
In the example following Balzac evidently finds the sum in the 
original edition too exorbitant. ‘‘Thomas,’”’ the name 
omitted in the Michel Lévy edition, was the owner of a large 
house in Brittany—the home purchased by Mlle de Verneuil 
for Francine, her maid. ‘The latter was a niece of Thomas. 


O. —Veux-tu, dit Marche-a-terre 
en poussant un soupir, veux-tu 
deux cents livres de bonne rente 
censive et la maison de Thomas a 


ML. —Veux-tu, dit Marche-a- 
Terre en poussant un soupir, veux- 
tu trente livres de bonne rente 
[p. 156, ll. 15-16] ? 


Ernée [III, 13, ll. 12-15] ? 


The fourth type of variations has to do with money. 
Plots in which money is a major factor are numerous in 
Balzac’s stories, and his reputation for piling up enormous 
sums in his novels is too well known for comment. The plot 
of Les Chouans, however, is not a money plot, though money 
is often mentioned in the story, and at least a dozen variations 
occur in connection with the amounts involved. These va- 
riations, with few exceptions, are slight, as is apparent in the 


typical examples following: 


O. —Il n’y a plus de danger, 
monsieur d’Orgemont; cette fois-ci 
j'ai bén gagné mes dix écus [III, 
111, ll. 11-13]. 

O. Si Galope-chopine vous dé- 


couvrait, ou il vous prendra pour 
Vesprit s’il fait nuit, ou ces quatre 


ML. —Il n’y a plus de danger, 
monsieur d’Orgemont. Mais, cette 
fois-ci, j’ai bien gagné mes frente 
écus [p. 189, ll. 27-28]! 

ML. Si Galope-Chopine vous dé- 


couvrait, ou il vous prendra pour 
Vesprit, s’il fait nuit; ou dix écus 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 45 


écus l’attendriront s’il fait jour... V’attendriront, s’il fait jour [p. 190, 
[IIT, 112-13, ll. r9~21, 1]. ll. ro—-12]. 


O. Tenez, voild trois cents écus, ML. Tenez, voila deux cents écus, — 
gardez-les-lui. En les ménageant, gardez-les-lui; en les ménageant, 
il ira loin avec ¢a,—puisque son il ira loin avec ca, puisque son 
pére a été douze ans 4 les amasser_ pére a été douze ans A les amasser 
{IV, 147-48, ll. 21, 1-3]. [p. 282, ll. 25-27]. 


In the first and second examples just given, the changes 
are made for the sake of consistency. Balzac refers to the 
same sums elsewhere in the story and in so doing is inaccurate 
in repeating the correct figures. As to the third example, he 
evidently considers the amount in the original edition to be 
too large. 

The next type of variations is different from anything we 
have observed so far. In the examples cited hitherto, the 
alterations have been concerned primarily with style. As 
previously explained, these variations are representative of 
changes made throughout Les Chouans. After the first 
attack, however, instances occur where certain variations 
involve not only matters of style but changes in ideas and 
substance. It will therefore be our aim henceforth to make 
a study of this last type of variations with the object of 
ascertaining Balzac’s purpose in making such revisions. Also, 
by keeping the plot of the story always in mind, we shall be 
enabled to determine whether the variations constitute actual 
changes in the plot or provide the means of facilitating its 
motivation. 

Les Chouans, it should be observed at this point, is based 
on a double plot of the conflict type. The story, briefly, is as 
follows: 

In the autumn of the year 1799 the inhabitants of Brittany 
uprise in rebellion against the Republic. Marquis Alphonse 
de Montauran (the “Gars,”’ as he is called), their young chief, 


46 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


leads them in an attack against the Blues (Republicans) on 
the plateau of La Pélerine, an elevated plain between Fougéres 
and Mayenne. Accompanying the young nobleman on the 
expedition and posing as his mother is a Mme du Gua, a 
woman still young, striking in appearance, and much enamored 
of the marquis. While on the way to La Pélerine, mother 
and son share the coach of Mlle de Verneuil, a beautiful spy 
sent by the police to frustrate the plans of the Breton leader. 
Mlle de Verneuil is accompanied by an escort of Blues under 
the command of Corentin, a wily police-agent of considerable 
talent. During the journey the marquis de Montauran and 
Mile de Verneuil fall in love with each other. Their love 
gives impetus to jealousy and treachery on the part of Mme 
du Gua and Corentin. Influenced by the actions and attitudes 
of these two people, the lovers mistrust each other and seek 
revenge. ‘Their misunderstandings and lack of confidence in 
each other finally result in Mlle de Verneuil betraying the 
marquis on the eve of their wedding. Regretting her deed 
when too late, the sorrowful wife attempts to save her husband 
from the onslaught of the Republican guard. Her efforts are 
futile, and both she and her husband perish within a few 
hours after their marriage. 

Let us now begin with the variations concerning chiefly 
the characters in the narrative. In Les Chouans Balzac 
desires the reader to form a definite conception of certain 
individuals in the book, and when oversight on his part or 
the exigencies of the plot tend to mar the moral portrait he 
invariably seeks to remedy the situation. Take, for example, 
Mile de Verneuil. As we read, we are exceedingly impressed 
with the girl’s charm, her surpassing beauty, and her manly 
courage. We are conscious too of her womanliness, her high 
ideals, her depth of character. These latter qualities Balzac 
considered salient in her nature, and that he desired us to 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 47 


form a similar opinion is apparent in many of the variations 
following. 

Thus in the first example the matter of the heroine’s 
attitude toward the political parties in power arises in connec- 
tion with her invitation to the Gars and Mme du Gua to share 
the coach. The possible danger involved in accepting such 
an offer causes the Gars to question Mlle de Verneuil concern- 
ing the safety of the journey and her relations with the escort 
of Republicans. In both the original and standard editions 
the girl explains to him that the condition of the times renders 
all occurrences unnatural and that one can always accept 
without scruple what is offered with bonhomie. In the 
standard edition, however, she adds: “Et surtout ... vous 
n’avez a craindre aucune trahison dans une offre faite avec 
simplicité par une personne qui n’épouse point les haines 
politiques” (O., II, 42, 1.2. ML., p. 82, ll. 26-29). 

Remembering that Balzac desires the reader to keep in 
mind the finer side of the heroine, the purpose of this brief 
addition becomes obvious. The fact that Mlle de Verneuil 
does not share political hatreds enables us to excuse much in 
her future actions which savors of disloyalty to the political 
party of which she is a representative. 

The second example consists of the addition of a long 
passage in the Michel Lévy edition. In both editions, during 
the early stages of their journey together, the hero and the 
heroine, weary of riding, dismount to take a short walk. 
The pleasant trend of their conversation is suddenly broken 
when the question of the identity of the Gars is raised. The 
hesitancy of the young man to disclose his real name grieves 
the girl. She suspects that her companion is not, as his 
attire would indicate, a pupil of the Ecole Polytechnique, but 
rather, the Royalist chief, the marquis de Montauran. In the 
original edition the matter of identity is then soon brought to a 


48 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


harmonious conclusion by subterfuge on the part of the Gars 
who claims, among other things, that he is the marquis de 
Marigny,* that he is condemned to die, that love of country 
brings him to France, and that if death awaits him, he would 
like to die fighting near Montauran, his friend. But at this 
point in the story Balzac lengthens the conversation between 
the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil in the standard edition. In the 
added passage Mile de Verneuil admits when questioned by 
the Gars that she does not hate Montauran and that she 
intends to afford the latter protection. Her remarks lead the 
Gars to confess his love for her. She then takes the oppor- 
tunity to tell him how his appearance and actions reveal his 
true identity. She points out also the traits in herself which 
disprove her to be a woman of the streets and makes it clear 
that she is to be won by love only. She confides that she 
would like to share in the larger life of a man. She touches 
on the subject of unfaithfulness and says that it is impossible 
to noble hearts. She makes it evident that she always would 
stand ready to help the man who held her affections, to 
sacrifice herself for him, to love him always—even when he 
no longer cared for her. Lastly, she explains that she has 
never told the longings of her heart to another and that she 
does so now for the reason that the Gars and she will separate 
as soon as the former is in safety. To this remark the Gars 
emphatically replies that such a separation will never occur 
(OST 00) ais AL pp. 107-9; 16-29) 17a 
From the contents of the addition just summarized we 
may infer that Balzac has a threefold purpose in inserting the 
passage ,in the standard edition; namely, to emphasize the 
fact that the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil are falling in love 
with each other, to give some notion of their social status, and 


«In the standard edition the Gars says instead that he is the vicomte de 
Bauvan (p. 107). 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 49 


to stress the nobler and more feminine side of the heroine’s 
nature. Considering the space devoted to the girl’s conversa- 
tion and the nature of her remarks, the last of these reasons 
in all probability is the one which Balzac especially desires to 
emphasize in this instance. The heroine’s whole conception of 
love in general and her confession as to what love in particular 
would mean in her own life reveal aspects of her nature rich 
in womanly desires. Despite a life fraught with adventure, 
it is apparent withal that Mlle de Verneuil has retained her 
femininity and possesses much in common with the type of 
woman to whom love is the greatest thing in the world and 
her husband the dominant force in her existence. 

Variations especially involving romantic elements in Les 
Chouans will be considered later in a group by themselves. 
We may note in passing, however, that in the preceding 
example Mlle de Verneuil’s idealization of love has not a 
little of the flavor of romanticism. 

The next example is a case of substitution. During the 
journey en voiture the coach is attacked. Mlle de Verneuil 
springs from the vehicle and is about to run away from the 
scene of the fray. Ashamed of her fright and desirous of 
appearing brave in the eyes of her lover, she checks her 
flight. Montauran takes her hand and holds it to his heart. 
Smiling, she says: 

O. —Vous voyez? ... je pense, ML. —J’ai eu peur; ... mais 
commel’empereur romain,qu’ilfaut maintenant ... [p. 113, ll. 33-34]. 
mourir debout! ... [II, 123, ll. 4-6]. 


It is to be noted that in the original edition Mlle de 
Verneuil’s remark is a bit pedantic and that her bravery 
partakes of masculinity. In the standard edition, however, 
her response is more in keeping with her true nature; her 
confession of fear and of a feeling of security in the protection 


50° VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


of the man she loves is quite natural under the circumstances 
and constitutes another subtle touch in the narrative indicative 
of her femininity. 

We must not lose sight of the fact that the heroine’s per- 
sonality is more or less complex and that there are other aspects 
to her nature which have a bearing on many of her future 
actions in the story. She is quite feminine as we have already 
seen. Notwithstanding this fact she possesses the spirit of 
adventure to a degree unusual in a person of her type—a 
spirit which accounts, no doubt, for her courage and poise 
under the most trying circumstances. Balzac brings out very 
clearly this adventurous side of Mlle de Verneuil in connection 
with the lovers’ quarrel in the coach. Having been warned 
during an attack upon the coach to beware of Mlle de Verneuil, 
the Gars has ceased to regard her ina kindly light. Miserable, 
the two young people ride on in silence. At last the girl 
remarks: 

O. Vous plantez des chardons MLZ. Vous avez une trop mau- 
et récoltez des roses! ... [II, 149, vaise téte, les bourreaux n’en 
Il. 19-20]. voudraient pas, je la garde [p. 123, 

ll. 4-5]. 

Her winning ways and her assurance that she does not intend 
to take his life cause the Gars to relent and to yield to her 
charm. It is at this point in the narrative that Balzac takes 
the opportunity in the standard edition to speak in particular 
of Mlle de Verneuil’s adventurous spirit: ‘‘Elle était si belle! 
elle savait si bien triompher des obstacles en amour! elle 
était si fort habituée a se jouer de tout, 4 marcher au hasard! 
elle aimait tant l’imprévu et les orages de la vie!” (O., IT, 150, 
ase AM L., p.4225 117-70.) 

In the standard edition Balzac again further elaborates on 
the character of the heroine. This time he reveals the girl’s 
inherent pride and the extent to which it may lead her in 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 51 


maintaining her self-respect. It will be recalled that, while 
on the way to La Pélerine, Mlle de Verneuil accepts the 
invitation of the Gars to stop off at the chateau of La Vivetiére, 
and that, during her brief sojourn there, cruel gossip causes her 
to be scorned by the Gars. Speaking of the incident to her 
maid, Mlle de Verneuil remarks, in the two editions under 
consideration, that one lives to love but that one can die to 
avenge one’s self. ‘Then she adds in the standard edition: 
“Oui, pour l’aller chercher 14 oti il sera, pour de nouveau le 
rencontrer, le séduire et avoir 4 moi, je donnerais ma vie! ... 
Mais, si je n’ai pas, dans peu de jours, sous mes pieds, humble 
et soumis, cet homme qui m’a méprisée, si je n’en fais pas mon 
valet, mais je serai au-dessous de tout, je ne serai plus une 
femme, je ne serai plus moi! ...” (O., III, 33, 1. 9. ML., 
p. 163, ll. 9-14.) 

It is to be noted that the preceding example not only 
makes us aware of one more quality in the heroine’s character 
but that it serves to motivate the plot by suggesting additional 
moves in the story. 

In the next example Mlle de Verneuil again refers to her 
unpleasant experience at La Vivetiére. This time she is 
talking to the commandant Hulot and says in regard to the 
Gars: ‘‘—Je vais pécher aux flambeaux. Je serai moi-méme 
le phare allumé sur le rivage pour attirer la proie du 
pécheur. ... Ah! ah! ah! ce ne sera pas le premier poisson 
amorcé par une femme!” (O., III, 38, ll. 10-15. ML., 
p. 165, l. 6.) 

In the standard edition Balzac omits this remark of Mlle 
de Verneuil, obviously because her analogy is vulgar and 
detracts from her character. 

Still referring to her experience at the chateau of La Vive- 
tiére and to her intention to take vengeance on the Gars, 
Mlle de Verneuil continues the conversation thus: 


52 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


O. —Je ne me reconnais pas, dit- ML. —Je ne me reconnais pas, 
elle d’un ton d’homme; pourquoi  dit-elle d’un ton d’homme. Pour- 
parler [IIT, 40, ll. 11-12] ? quoi parler ? il faut l’aller chercher! 


—L’aller chercher? dit Hulot; 
mais, ma chére enfant, prenez-y 
garde, nous ne sommes _ pas 
maitres des campagnes, et, si 
vous vous hasardiez 4 sortir de la 
ville, vous seriez prise ou tuée & 
cent pas.—Il n’y a jamais de 
danger pour ceux qui veulent se 
venger! répondit-elle en faisant un 
geste de dédain ... [p. 165, ll. 


30-37]. 


As far as the character of the heroine is concerned, the 
added material in this instance in the Michel Lévy edition 
strongly emphasizes her great courage—a trait in her nature 
of which we are conscious again and again in the story. The 
addition likewise renders the conclusion of her discussion 
more vivid and more dramatic. It also intimates, as in an 
example previously cited, a possible development of the plot 
in the direction of revenge. 

The next variation takes the form of new material in the 
Michel Lévy edition, and occurs in connection with the delay 
of the Gars a few hours before his marriage to Mlle de Verneuil. 
While waiting in vain for a prearranged signal from her 
lover assuring her that he is on the way, the heartsick girl 
has a premonition that her happiness is imperiled. Balzac 
adds at this point: 


oy Depuis deux jours, ses idées s’étaient étrangement modifiées. 
L’4preté, les éclats désordonnés de ses passions avaient lentement subi 
Vinfluence de l’égale température que donne 4 la vie un véritable amour. 
La certitude d’étre aimée, qu’elle était allée chercher 4 travers tant de 
périls, avait fait naitre en elle le désir de rentrer dans les conditions 
sociales qui sanctionnent le bonheur, et d’ou elle n’était sortie que par 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 53 


désespoir. N’aimer que pendant un moment lui sembla de l’impuissance. 
Puis elle se vit soudain reportée, du fond de la société ot le malheur 
Vavait plongée, dans le haut rang ot son pére l’avait un moment placée. 
Sa vanité, comprimée par les cruelles alternatives d’une passion tour a 
tour heureuse ou méconnue, s’éveilla, lui fit voir tous les bénéfices d’une 
grande position. En quelque sorte née marquise, épouser Montauran, 
n’était-ce pas, pour elle, agir et vivre dans la sphére qui lui était propre ? 
Aprés avoir connu les hasards d’une vie tout aventureuse, elle pouvait, 
mieux qu’une autre femme, apprécier la grandeur des sentiments qui font 
la famille. Puis le mariage, la maternité et ses soins étaient pour elle 
moins une taéche qu’un repos. Elle aimait cette vie vertueuse et calme 
entrevue 4 travers ce dernier orage, comme une femme lasse de la vertu 
peut jeter un regard de convoitise sur une passion illicite. La vertu 
était pour elle une nouvelle séduction [O., IV, 132, 1.6. MZL., pp. 


278-79, ll. 23-37, 1-8]. hoe 


Again Balzac emphasizes the finer side of the heroine in 
the preceding addition. The girl’s dreams of the future 
show that with the coming of love into her life she has main- 
tained her ideals and her desire to lead a virtuous life. Her 
vanity on this occasion is but the natural expression of a feeling 
of self-respect, and explains her satisfaction in the fact that 
marriage with the marquis will in no way detract from her 
social status in life but will, instead, elevate her to a position 
which is rightfully hers. 

Summarizing now the examples of variations dealing in 
particular with the character of the heroine, we find that all 
are for the purpose of calling attention to the more or less 
admirable qualities in her nature. Thus, in the first example 
(an addition) Balzac endeavors to show that disloyalty to her 
country is not characteristic of Mlle de Verneuil; in the 
second example (an addition) he stresses the nobler and more 
feminine qualities of her nature; in the third example (a 
substitution) he again emphasizes her femininity; in the 
fourth example (an addition) he calls attention to the 
adventurous side of her nature which accounts, in a large 


54 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


measure, for her extraordinary courage; in the fifth example 
(an addition) he reveals her inherent pride, based on a feeling 
of self-respect; in the sixth example (an omission) he does away 
with an indelicate analogy which gives a touch of vulgarity to 
her character; in the seventh example (an addition) he again 
stresses her courage; and in the eighth and last example (an 
addition) he expounds at length her desire to lead a virtuous 
life and to find her rightful position in the social scale. 

Of the four variations which remain to be considered from 
the standpoint of characterization, three concern Mme du 
Gua and one has reference to Corentin. Mme du Gua, it 
may be recalled, plays the réle of villainess in Les Chouans. 
Her unrequited love for the hero gives rise to intense feelings of 
suspicion, jealousy, and antagonism toward her rival, Mlle de 
Verneuil. 

The first of the variations mentioned occurs early in the 
story. Before undertaking the journey in the coach, Mlle de 
Verneuil breakfasts with the Gars and Mme du Gua in a 
wayside inn. On this occasion Mlle de Verneuil asks Mme 
du Gua if her maid Francine may dine with them. She 
excuses her request on the ground that in such stormy times 
devotion can be repaid only by friendship and that her maid 
is more a friend than a servant. After this explanation Mme 
du Gua whispers in the ear of the Gars: | 
O. ...c’est peut-étre mademoiselle ML. ... ce ne doit pas étre 
de Verneuil!—mais pourquoi n’a-t- mademoiselle de Verneuil, mais 


elle pas de poudre [II, 31, ll. une fille envoyée par Fouché 
t1-13] ? [p. 78, Il. 25-26]. 


This, brief substitution in the standard edition is but one 
of many ‘taps’ revealing the unpleasant traits in the charac- 
ter of Mmedu Gua. In this instance it indicates her suspicion. 


t A “tap” may be defined as one of a number of points reinforcing a definite 
idea or making progress in a definite direction. 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 55 


The variation serves the purpose also of suggesting, a little 
more, the police atmosphere in the narrative. 

The second variation, an addition in the standard edition, 
occurs shortly after the example just cited. Mme du Gua 
observes that the heroine carries a letter which gives her 
authority over the Republican escort, and she insinuatingly 
remarks in a whisper to the Gars that: ‘‘C’est une de ces 
mauvaises créatures 4 l’aide desquelles Fouché veut s’emparer 
de vous, et la lettre qu’elle a montrée est donnée pour requérir 
les bleus contre vous” (O., II, 61, 1. 9. ML., pp. 89-90, 
ll. 36-37, 1-2). 

This short addition is another “tap” further disclosing 
the unpleasant traits characteristic of Mme du Gua. Itisa 
subtle touch revealing her suspicion and jealousy. It suggests 
also a possibility as to the identity of the heroine, and thus 
arouses curiosity and suspense. It constitutes, too, another 
point in the development of the police atmosphere. 

The third variation is likewise an added passage in the 
standard edition. During their journey together Mlle de 
Verneuil accepts the invitation of the Gars to attend a recep- 
tion at the chateau of La Vivetiére.t Her beauty and charm 
excite the admiration and curiosity of the other guests, where- 
upon (in the standard edition) Mme du Gua takes occasion 
to say to some of the people present that Montauran has 
fallen in love with the girl at first sight, that advice from her 
lips was unwelcome to him, that he has had sufficient warning, 
and that the girl has taken a noble name only to tarnish it 
(O., II, 169,1.7. ML., p. 129, ll. 25-33). 

t An interesting fact arises in connection with this chateau. The points 
of similarity between the chateau of Marigny, which Balzac visited, and that of 
La Vivetiére strongly indicate that the two places are the same. On account 
of the exigencies of the story, however, Balzac locates the chateau of La Vivetiére 


between Mayenne and Fougéres rather than to the west of Fougéres. See 
Serval, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 


56 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


These sarcastic remarks of Mme du Gua are quite typical, 
and bring out still more clearly her jealousy and antagonism 
toward Mlle de Verneuil. They serve also to create suspense by 
implying that the heroine is traveling under an assumed name. 

The variation referring to Corentin consists of a substitu- 
tion in the standard edition. In this case the police-agent 
has just endeavored to arouse the suspicion of Hulot, the 
Republican Commandant, by telling him that Mlle de Verneuil’s 
love for the marquis will interfere with her promise to deliver 
the Gars into the hands of the Republicans. Corentin then 
says to himself: 


O. —Oui, l’heure est venue, 
Vargent sera ma foi bien gagné, 
car ma faction peut étre longue 


ML, —Oui, le moment est venu, 
cette femme sera donc 4 moi! 
Depuis cinq ans, le cercle que je 


[IV, 48, ll. r2—-r4]. trace autour d’elle s’est insensible- 
’ 


ment rétréci, je la tiens, et avec 
elle j’arriverai dans le gouverne- 
ment aussi haut que Fouché ... 
Oui, si elle perd le seul homme 
qu’elle ait aimé, la douleur me la 
livrera corps et 4me. II ne s’agit 
plus que de veiller nuit et jour 
pour surprendre son secret [p. 248, 
ll. 26-31]. 


In the foregoing passage in the Michel Lévy edition we 
perceive a number of traits especially characteristic of Coren- 
tin. Shrewdness, cunning, and tenacity of purpose, for 
instance, are apparent in his reference to the years spent in 
encircling Mlle de Verneuil; time and trouble are no obstacles 
in carrying out his base aims. His reference to the possible 
opportunity for advancement in the government shows him to 
be a man not without ambition. And finally, his speech in- 
dicates both his past as a mere spy and his more brilliant 
future as a reappearing character. 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 57 


In Les Chouans we have still another group of variations 
dealing with characters in the narrative, but since the purpose 
of these changes is primarily that of motivation, we shall 
reserve them for later consideration. 

In passing now to the subject of romanticism in Les 
Chouans we find that the story embodies many romantic 
qualities but that variations involving such traits are rare. 
The addition in the standard text relative to Mlle de Verneuil’s 
idealization of love has already been pointed out as being a 
romantic touch in the story. In the variations following 
three other romantic elements are apparent. 

Thus, the first example deals with the matter of the dual 
personality—a prevalent idea in romanticism. ‘The variation 
referred to, a short addition, occurs in connection with the 
lovers’ discussion of love. The Gars, charmed with Mlle de 
Verneuil’s bewitching ways, inquires, among other things, if 
she is an angel ora demon. She in turn replies: 

Ange et démon, vous l’avez dit. Ah! ce n’est pas d’aujourd’hui que 
je reconnais ma double nature. Pourtant, nous autres femmes, nous 
comprenons encore mieux que vous notre insuffisance. N’avons-nous 
pas un instinct qui nous fait pressentir en toute chose une perfection 4 
laquelle il est sans doute impossible d’atteindre. Mais, ajouta-t-elle en 
regardant le ciel et jetant un soupir, ce qui nous grandit & vos yeux ... 

—C’est ? dit-il. 

—Eh bien, répondit-elle, c’est que nous luttons toutes, plus ou 
moins, contre une destinée incomplete [O., II, 100, l. 15. ML., p. 103, 


ll. 25-35]. 


The occasion of the second variation in question is when 
the lovers fully realize for the first time their affection for 
each other. Spellbound, they ride along in the coach in 
silence, wholly oblivious of their surroundings, dreaming sweet 
dreams of a glorious future which they hope to share together. 
In the standard edition Balzac pauses at this point in the 
story to generalize on the state in which the lovers find 


58 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


themselves. He calls attention to the fact that they probably 
have arrived at that strange condition of mind when, either 
from fatigue or by way of a challenge to fate, one refuses to 
ponder seriously over the course one is pursuing and yields 
one’s self up to the caprices of fortune. He raises the question 
as to whether there are not abysses and declivities in the 
moral as in the physical world, wherein vigorous natures like 
to plunge and endanger their existence with the joy of a 
gambler who stakes his whole fortune. He stresses the fact 
that the more inevitably Mlle de Verneuil and the young 
nobleman feel themselves drawn toward each other, the more 
they become absorbed in unconsciously calculating the amount 
of their future happiness (O.,II,112,1.3. ML.,p.110, ll. 7-22). 

In making this lengthy addition, Balzac obviously is 
endeavoring to impress the reader with the fact that what is 
taking place between the lovers is a strange but not impossible 
or improbable experience. His whole discourse, moreover, 
comprises a discussion of fatal love—a second romantic touch 
in Les Chouans. 

The last variation available in connection with the subject 
of romanticism is an omission in the standard edition. Mlle 
de Verneuil on this occasion is dancing, and Balzac describes 
her thus: 


Elle déploya les mystérieuses richesses d’une danse prestigieuse, 
imprimant a sa voluptueuse tunique rouge de molles ondulations et des 
torsions rapides qui attestérent la rare perfection du corps. Ses mouve- 
mens eurent une pétillante vivacité, une grace sylphique, qui firent croire 
qu'elle se balangait dans une atmosphere magnétique ot son passage excitatt 
des étincelles, car ses vétemens semblaient jeter de la lumiére. Elle attirait 
comme l’espoir, elle échappait comme un souvenir. La voir ainsi, 
c’était ne jamais l’oublier! Elle le savait, et la conscience qu’elle eut 
alors de sa beauté répandit sur sa figure un charme inexprimable [O., IV, 
11-12, ll. 11-20, 1-7. ML., p. 235, l. 33]. 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK — 59 


In the foregoing description the information in italics 
affords a third romantic touch in the story; namely, the 
mesmeric quality. Balzac’s frequent use of such material is 
well known. In this instance, however, he omits the part in 
question in the standard edition for the reason, perhaps, that 
it is not in keeping with so short a description. 

The next group of variations is quite miscellaneous in 
character and concerns a variety of subjects. The first of 
the examples following is a long digression in the conversation 
between the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil during the reception 
at the chateau of La Vivetiére. In discussing the social status 
of some of the guests the conversation of the two young people 
suddenly turns to Mlle de Verneuil herself, and we have an 
insertion in the standard edition. She asks what the people 
are saying about her, and the Gars answers that he would 
offend her if he told her. She then tells the Gars that she 
will depart immediately if he allows her to be insulted without 
taking vengeance. He in turn explains that the guests 
consider her a Judith of the streets sent by Fouché to entrap 
him. Deeply hurt, Mlle de Verneuil remarks that. she 
deserves these insults and that she would like to see the 
Gars persuaded that she is a “‘méprisable créature’’ and 
yet have him love her still. He then tells her that his life 
belongs to her, and she replies that he is offering himself in 
a moment of passion and of desire. He answers: ‘‘—Sans 
regret, et pour toujours” (O., II, 174,1. 10. ML., pp. 133-34, 
ll. 4~37) TG I 

The major purpose of the preceding insertion is apparently 
to lengthen the love scene and consequently to hold or to 
further stimulate the interest of the reader. The example, 
moreover, is still another tap in the development of the police 
atmosphere. 


60 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


The second example, a case of substitution in the standard 


edition, is largely an elaboration of specific details. 


O. —Elle [Mlle de Verneuil] a 
péri avec son pére, dit-elle [Mme 
du Gua] brusquement. 


Thus: 


ML. —Elle a péri sur l’échafaud 
aprés l’affaire de Savenay, elle 
était venue au Mans pour sauver 


son frére le prince de Loudon, lui 
dit brusquement sa mére. 

—Vous vous trompez, madame, 
dit avec douceur Corentin en 
appuyant sur le mot madame; il 
y a deux demoiselles de Verneuil, 
les grandes maisons ont toujours 
plusieurs branches [p. 74, Il. 17-22]. 


—Vous vous trompez, Madame, 
reprit avec douceur Corentin en 
appuyant sur le mot madame; elle 
a été sauvée au 9g thermidor 
{II, ro, ll. 1-6]. 


The third variation, an omission in the standard edition 
referring to Mlle de Verneuil, is as follows: ‘‘Les deux petites 
narines, dont le joli nez grec de la jeune fille s’embellissait, 
fidéles organes de la passion, s’enflérent comme de petites 
voiles, et leur courbure voluptueuse donna un charme inex- 
primable 4 cette figure ot le dépit et mille sentimens irrités et 
combattus déployérent des beautés inconnues” (O., II, 50-51, 
Il. 17-20, 1-4. ML., p. 86, 1. 5). 

In Les Chouans we hear much concerning les deux petites 
narines of Mlle de Verneuil. In thisinstance Balzac, no doubt, 
omits this physiological detail for the reason that he employs 
it a number of times elsewhere. 

The fourth example, another omission in the standard 
edition, has reference to a gruesome incident in the story. 
After the insult at the chateau of La Vivetiére, Mlle de 
Verneuil resolves, it may be remembered, to take vengeance 
on the Gars. Going forth into the night to ponder over the 
matter she wanders along, wholly engrossed with her thoughts. 
At last she comes upon a cave—the treasure house of D’Orge- 
mont, a wealthy and avaricious banker. She arrives just as 
the latter is being tortured by Chouans who seek to force him 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 61 


to give up his wealth by burning his feet. Startled by the 
unexpected presence of the girl, the tormentors flee. Fearing 
their return, the miser and Mlle de Verneuil conceal themselves 
in a secret chamber in the cave where, among other things, 
is secluded the skeleton of a Breton priest, the brother of 


D’Orgemont. 
Mlle de Verneuil says: 


O. —Je ne suis pas morte, mon 
enfant! mais il me semble que je 
viens d’entendre lire un chant du 
Dante &@ mon maitre dItalien.— 
J’ai été cette nuit en enfer.—Ah! je 


Speaking of the horrible affair to her maid, 


ML. —Je ne suis pas morte, mon 
enfant,—Ah! je désirais des émo- 
tions en partant de Paris, ... j’en 
ai eu! ajouta-t-elle aprés une pause 
[p. 200, ll. 29-31]. 


voulais des émotions en partant de 
Paris!—J’en ai eu, ajouta-t-elle 
avec gaieté [III, 147, ll. 1-7]. 


As to the purpose of the brief omission in the foregoing 
example, Balzac evidently makes the revision for the sake 
of rendering the conversation less pedantic and more natural. 
The early reference to Dante is of special interest in view of 
later proof that Balzac gained inspiration from the Divina 
commedia for his own Comédie humaine." 

The fifth example concerns the long description of Fougéres 
and its environs. “Le Fougéres de Balzac est le vrai Fougéres 
... 2 In both texts the major features of the description are 
the same. The difference lies in the quantity of detail and in 
the manner of presentation. ‘“[La description] de Fougéres a 
été trés développée 4 partir de 1834, et surtout détachée de 
Vaction: en 1829, elle se lie aux impressions éprouvées par 
Mlle de Verneuil lorsqu’elle contemple le panorama qu’on | 
découvre de la promenade; elle est ainsi plus vive, tout en 
étant moins compléte.”3 (O. III, 47-60. ML., pp. 167-72.) 


t See Balzac’s Reappearing Characters, by Ethel Preston. 


2 Serval, op. cit., p. 6. 3 Ibid., p. 53. 


62 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


Our next consideration is the variations which especially 
facilitate motivation in Les Chouans. A few examples bear- 
ing on the subject have already been mentioned in connection 
with characterization. 

The first of the variations in question is an addition in 
the standard text, made chiefly for the purpose of linking two 
characters together in the reader’s mind; namely, the Gars 
and Mme du Gua. At this point in Les Chouans the reader 
is unfamiliar with the relations existing between these two 
people. Balzac gradually leads up to the matter, however, 
by subtle hints, as in the example following, the occasion of 
which is a conversation between the Gars and Mme du Gua 
relative to plundering the stage coach between Mayenne and 
Fougéres: 


—Pourquoi ne restez-vous pas avec moi? [asks Mme du Gua] en 
lui lancant le regard 4 demi despotique, 4 demi caressant par lequel les 
femmes qui ont des droits au respect d’un homme savent si bien exprimer 
leurs désirs. 

—N’allez-vous pas piller la voiture ? 

—Piller? répliqua-t-elle, quel singulier terme! lLaissez-moi vous 
expliquer ... 

—Rien, dit-il en lui prenant les mains et en les lui baisant avec la 
galanterie superficielle d’un courtisan—Ecoutez-moi, continua-t-il aprés 
une pause, si je demeurais l4 pendant la capture de cette diligence, nos 
gens me tueraient, car je les... 

—Vous ne les tueriez pas, reprit-elle vivement, car ils vous lieraient 
les mains, avec les égards dus 4 votre rang, et, aprés avoir levé sur les 
républicains une contribution nécessaire 4 leur équipement, 4 leur 
subsistance, 4 des achats de poudre, ils vous obéiraient aveuglément. 

—Et vous voulez que je commande ici? Si ma vie est nécessaire 
a la cause que je défends, permettez-moi de sauver l’honneur de mon 
pouvoir. En me retirant, je puis ignorer cette lAcheté. Je reviendrai 
pour vous accompagner [O., I, 118, 1. 10. ML., p. 41, ll. 16-36]. 


Although the main purpose of the addition just cited is 
to link the two characters together, it will be observed that 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 63 


the added lines give some conception of Mme du Gua’s un- 
scrupulous nature and of the Gars’s high sense of honor. 

In the next example, likewise an addition, Balzac endeavors 
to provide a natural situation for the meeting of characters 
who later are closely associated in the story—the Gars, Mme 
du Gua, and Mlle de Verneuil. The arrival of the coach at 
the Trois Maures, ‘‘l’hétel situé au milieu de la grande rue 
d’Alengon,”* gives Balzac an excellent opportunity to carry 
out his purpose. While on their way to La Pélerine the Gars 
and Mme du Gua stop at the Trois Maures. Mlle de Verneuil, 
traveling in the same direction, also stops at the inn. The 
presence of such distinguished guests is a great event in 
the history of the Trois Maures, and creates much bustle and 
excitement on the part of the innkeeper and his wife. Eager 
to please and to render satisfaction, the host seeks to make 
the best of his meager facilities. The question of properly 
serving the guests arises, and the good man adds (in the 
standard edition): 

—Comment allons-nous faire, ma femme? Qui diable pouvait 
croire que nous aurions tant de monde par le temps qui court? Avant 
que je puisse lui servir un déjeuner convenable, cette femme-la va 
s’impatienter. Ma foi, il me vient une bonne idée: puisque c’est des 


gens comme il faut, je vais leur proposer de se réunir 4 la personne que 
nous avons la-haut, hein [O., II, 3, 1.9. ML., p. 68, ll. 31-36]? 


Thus it is that the bonne idée of the innkeeper of the 
Trois Maures affords a natural and effective means of bringing 
the Gars and Mme du Gua in contact with Mlle de Verneuil. 

The third example in the group of variations under discus- 
sion concerns the attack upon the coach. In order to account 
for the hostile change in manner of the Gars toward Mlle de 
Verneuil, it is essential that the author provide some reason 


t This inn really existed in the place mentioned. Its authentic name, 
however, was the Maure. See Serval, op. cit., p. 11. 


64 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


for such an unpleasant transformation. In the original 
edition Balzac tries to enable the reader to account for this 
change by implying that during the skirmish the Gars has 
received a warning relative to Mlle de Verneuil. The gist 
of the message is left to the reader’s imagination. In the 
standard edition, however, Balzac is more specific, and as a 
consequence we understand more clearly the cause of the 
hostile change referred to. We learn that a mysterious 
Chouan has ridden up to the Gars and whispered: “‘—Dé€fiez- 
vous de la fille que vous avez rencontrée a Vhétel des Trots 
Maures”’ (O., TI, 127, 1. 10. ML., p. 115, ll. 6-11). 

The last variation to be mentioned in connection with the 
subject of motivation refers to a ruse successfully carried out 
by Corentin. The police-agent, relentless in his endeavor to 
place Mlle de Verneuil in his power, has delivered to her on 
the eve of her wedding the following note penned by himself, 
but supposedly written by the Gars and addressed to Mme 
du Gua: 


Non, mon ange, je n’irai pas ce soir 4 la Vivetiére. Ce soir, vous 
perdez votre gageure avec le comte, et je triomphe de la République en la 
personne de cette fille délicieuse, qui vaut certes bien une nuit, 
convenez-en. Ce sera le seul avantage réel que je remporterai dans cette 
campagne, car la Vendée se soumet. Il n’y a plus rien 4 faire en France, 
et nous repartirons sans doute ensemble pour l’Angleterre. Mais & 
demain les affaires sérieuses! 


This ruse on the part of Corentin is one of many dramatic 
incidents in the story, and constitutes the final tap in the 
destruction of the heroine’s faith in her lover. In the original 
edition, however, Balzac omits a bit of information essential 
to the, success of the artifice; namely, that Mlle de Verneuil 
is unfamiliar with the handwriting of the Gars. In the 
standard edition he remedies this defect, explaining: ‘“‘Elle 
ne connait pas lécriture du marquis” (O., IV, 165, l. 5. 
ML., p. 288, 1. 17). 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 65 


Three more variations remain for our attention, all dealing 
with the conclusion of the story. The occasion of the first 
two variations is the death of the hero and the heroine. In the 
original edition, immediately after the death of Mlle de 
Verneuil, Corentin gives orders to remove the wounded couple 
to the hospital. Prior to this command, however, Balzac 
inserts the following passage in the standard edition: 

—Commandant, dit le marquis en rassemblant toutes ses forces et 
sans quitter la main de Marie, je compte sur votre probité pour annoncer 
ma mort 4 mon jeune frére, qui se trouve 4 Londres. Ecrivez-lui que, 
sil veut obéir 4 mes derniéres paroles, il ne portera pas les armes contre 
la France, sans néanmoins jamais abandonner le service du roi.—Ce 
sera fait, dit Hulot en serrant la main du mourant [0., IV, 230, 1. 13. 
ML., pp. 309-10, ll. 35-37, 1-4]. 

The object of the preceding addition obviously is to lengthen 
the death scene, to render it more dramatic, and perhaps to 
indicate the author’s disapproval of civil warfare. 

The second variation in question is another addition, and 
serves also to lengthen the death scene. Following Corentin’s 
command relative to the removal of Mlle de Verneuil and her 
husband to the hospital, Hulot (in both editions) angrily 
dismisses the police-agent, saying: ‘“‘—Puisque ta besogne est 
finie par ici, fiche-moi le camp! et regarde bien la figure du 
commandant Hulot, pour ne jamais te trouver sur son passage, 
si tu ne veux pas qu'il fasse de ton ventre le fourreau de son 
bancal.”’ Corentin in turn replies: “—Voila encore un de 
mes honnétes gens qui ne feront jamais fortune.’’ Here the 
story ends in the original edition. In the standard text, 
however, Balzac adds: ‘“‘Le marquis put encore remercier 
par un signe de téte son adversaire, en lui témoignant cette 
estime que les soldats ont pour de loyaux ennemis” (O., 
LV, 231,16. ALL., p. 310, Il. 15-17). 

The last variation to be mentioned is that of the epilogue 
in the standard edition. In the editio princeps Balzac leaves 


66 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


us in a state of doubt as to the fate of certain outstanding 
minor characters—Marche-a-Terre and Francine. In the 
standard edition, however, he satisfies our curiosity, and in 
the form of a short epilogue gives us a charming glimpse of 
these two people as they go through life together, industrious, 
content, and apparently oblivious of the crimes committed 
in the years gone by. 


In recapitulating now the numerous variations existing 
between the original and the standard editions of Les Chouans, 
we may sum them up thus: First, there are the prefatory and 
the mechanical variations involving the title of the story, 
its form, the date of composition, the quotation from the 
Apocrypha, the dedication of the book, and the Introduction 
which gives some conception of the spirit in which Les Chouans 
was written, together with information relative to the authen- 
ticity of the narrative, the characters, and the setting. 
Secondly, there are the variations up to the first attack, illus- 
trative of ‘‘the additional detail,’’ many Cooperesque touches, 
the tic, the addition, omission, substitution, and change in 
position of various parts of speech, as well as changes in 
spelling and in punctuation. Thirdly, there are the salient 
variations after the first attack which include (besides minor 
touches such as animalisms, vegetablisms, money variations, 
et cetera) reappearing characters and variations dealing with 
characterization, romantic elements, description, motivation, 
and the conclusion of the story. 

As stated in chapter i, the object of our study of the 
variations in question has been to secure specific information 
relative to Balzac’s method of composition, his style, and his 
realism. It is already evident from the number of changes 
made that Balzac’s method of composition is characterized 
by infinite pains to attain perfection, by laborious efforts to 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 67 


take into consideration the most insignificant details. 
Brunetiére sums up the whole matter in Honoré de Balzac 
when he says: “... comme Moliére, nous venons de le 
voir, il écrit vite, mais, de plus que Moliére, il se corrige 
[156 typical variations have been quoted, mentioned, or dis- 
cussed in our study, and they, as we have seen, constitute 
only a small proportion of the total changes in Les Chouans]; 
il refait jusqu’a douze ou quinze fois ses romans sur épreuves 
[Les Chouans, like other novels, was much revised in proofs]; 
il ajoute, il retranche, il transpose, il superpose 4 la premiére 
expression de sa pensée ce qui lui semble en étre une expression 
‘plus écrite’ [up to the first attack there are 107 additions, 
126 omissions, 55 transpositions, and 359 substitutions (see 
p. 14), not to mention those which come later in the story]. 
... il oublie parfois le sens propre des mots, souvent les régles 
de la grammaire, et les lois mémes de la syntaxe frangaise’’ [the 
examples on pp. 28, 18, 20, 29, for instance].7 

Furthermore, the general principles of Balzac’s method— 
accumulation and harmony—are illustrated in a number of 
variations. Take, for example, the Indian characteristics 
of the Breton peasants; their savage nature, their wild and 
rugged appearance, their courage, their cunning, their treach- 
ery, their primitive method of warfare—all are given added 
weight in the changes cited above (pp. 16, 25-26). And in 
the variations concerning Mlle de Verneuil, we again see 
instances of accumulation and harmony. Balzac’s desire to 
emphasize the more attractive side of the heroine causes him 
to adopt essential womanliness as the central keynote of 
her complex nature. The result is the addition, on the one 
hand, of many passages calling attention to her femininity 
and the omission, on the other hand, of certain portions of 
the story which smack of vulgarity or masculinity (pp. 46-54). 


t Brunetiére, op. cit., p. 294. 


68 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 


As to Balzac’s style, whatever may be our personal opinion 
of the matter, from the standpoint of the variations under 
consideration its good points rather than its flaws are in 
evidence. It is occasionally true that certain modifications 
which he deemed essential must, at times, render his style 
heavy and laborious. But on the whole Balzac’s omissions 
and substitutions have the opposite effect. The criticism 
also is often advanced that Balzac “tombe dans un langage 
prétentieux ot abondent les métaphores_ recherchées.’’ 
Balzac himself is aware of overelaboration in this respect, 
and in Les Chouans we have observed several cases where 
he endeavors to be less florid (pp. 19, 29). The distinctive 
features of his style, however, as evinced by our study, are 
precision and clearness. No less than a third of the changes 
are made with these two requisites constantly in mind. 
Accuracy (truth) is the propelling idea of his art. And if at 
times errors creep into the narrative and the discourse seems 
a bit clouded, the fault is rarely due to negligence on Balzac’s 
part, but rather, to the fact that the hugeness of his ‘‘ creative 
vision”’ often transcends his power of expression. 

Concerning Balzac’s realism, the variations dealing with 
this field are of much interest in view of the fact that Les 
Chouans is the bridge between the historical and the realistic 
novel. As we might expect, the story contains many romantic 
elements, and some of these we have observed in the case of 
certain variations (pp. 49, 57-59). On the other hand, 
practically all of the general qualities of realism are to be 
found, and we have perceived in the changes cited many 
realistic traits, principally truth, materialism, and sociological 
features. 

The importance of truth in Les Chouans has already been 
emphasized, and especially is this quality apparent in such 

* Abry and Audic, Histoire illustrée de la Littérature frangatse, p. 562. 


VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 69 


changes as those concerned with details of costume, physi- 
ognomy, references to geographical locations, military terms, 
and money matters. As to materialism, its extent in the 
story as a whole is admittedly great. Aside from Balzac’s 
propensity to give a graphical representation of externalities, 
the nature of the story itself—the portraiture of a people 
living in a primitive and isolated state—obviously requires 
considerable attention to materialistic things. In accurately 
depicting the external world, however, there is nothing in 
the variations to indicate that Balzac is sacrificing form to 
matter; there is no real tendency to “pile on sensations, 
colors, coarseness of language and treatment.’’ Nor, as we 
have noticed in the case of the salient variations after the first 
attack, does the materialism debar psychological insight into 
the more intellectual characters of the story. In Les Chouans, 
therefore, Balzac is not open to the charge of persistent 
externality. 

As to the sociological features, such aspects of the story 
find their best expression in the variations dealing with 
Marche-a-Terre and with reappearing characters. In his 
distribution of mankind into species Balzac has, we repeat, 
achieved a masterpiece in the case of Marche-a-Terre as a 
bestial type, and the changes made further emphasize this 
type. With the inclusion of reappearing characters in the 
standard text, we say in conclusion, Balzac has adopted a 
unique realistic device which, carried to a remarkable degree 
of perfection in the Comédie humaine, gives life and continuity 
to the whole social organism. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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Balzac, Honoré de. Céuvres Compléies. Paris, Michel Lévy Fréres, 
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——. Cuvres Complétes. Paris, Calmann-Lévy. Correspondance, Vol. 
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——. Le Dernier Chouan ou La Bretagne en 1800. Four volumes. Paris, 
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Dargan, E. Preston. “Balzac and Cooper: Les Chouans,”’ Modern 
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——. ‘Studies in Balzac. III. His General Method,” Modern Phi- 
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Du Breil de Pontbriand (Vicomte). Un Chouan: Le général du Boisguy. 
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Du Pontavice de Heussey, Robert. ‘‘Balzacen Bretagne. Cinq lettres 
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Faguet, Emile. Balzac. Paris, Hachette, 1913. 

Haas, J.!! ‘‘Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” Z/FSLZ, Vol. XXX, 1906. 

Hanotaux and Vicaire. La Jeunesse de Balzac. Balzac Imprimeur. 
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James, Henry. The Question of Our Speech: The Lesson of Balzac. 
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7° 


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Lovenjoul, Vicomte Spoelberch de. Histoire des Giuvres de H. de Balzac. 
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Maigron, Louis. Le Roman Historique @ ’ Epoque Romantique. Paris, 
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Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature. New York, Henry 
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Preston, Ethel. Balzac’s Reappearing Characters. ‘To be published. 

Sainte-Beuve. “M. de Balzac,” Causeries du Lundi, September 2, 
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Saintsbury, George. Preface to The Works of Honoré de Balzac, Vol. I. 
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Séché, Léon. “Balzac 4 Fougéres,’”’ Revue Bleue, Vol. II, 1901. 

——. ‘La Genése des Romans de Balzac. I. Les Chouans,” Les 

4 Annales Romantiques, Vol. II. Paris, 1905. 
4 Serval, Maurice. Awutour d’un roman de Balzac: Les Chouans. Paris, 
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“ Surville, Mme L. Balzac: Sa Vie et Ses Geuvres. Paris, 1858. 
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Thiers, M.A. The History of the French Revolution, Vol, 1. Translated, 
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